Anode-cathode Distance Research Articles

Evaluation of overpotentials on graphite and liquid Bi–Mg electrodes by current interruption

Our group proposes a new titanium smelting process via Bi–Ti alloy. This process is comprised of reduction of TiCl4 by Bi–Mg liquid alloy, separation of Ti from Bi by distillation, and Mg electrolysis. In this study, the Mg electrolysis with Bi–Mg liquid alloy cathode was investigated. We firstly measured the IR-corrected polarization curves on graphite and Bi–Mg liquid alloys by the current interruption method. The results indicated that the Bi–Mg alloy cathode can reduce the electricity consumption of the Mg electrolysis. In addition, from the relaxation curves on graphite and Bi–Mg alloys, the concentration overpotential on the Bi–Mg alloy is mainly due to mass transfer of Mg from the electrode/molten salt interface to the liquid alloy bulk. At current densities higher than 300 mA cm−2, Mg-rich solid phases such as Bi2Mg3 and/or pure solid Mg are assumed to be deposited on the Bi–Mg liquid alloy cathode. Finally, we estimated the electricity consumption of the Mg electrolysis in the new smelting process based on the measured overpotentials, assuming that Bi–Mg liquid alloy cathode is stirred sufficiently and a low current density, 275 mA cm−2, is applied. Under these conditions, the total electricity consumption of the Mg electrolysis in the new process will be lower than that in the Kroll process when the anode–cathode distance is smaller than 8 cm. IR-corrected polarization curves of (a) Mg2+ reduction on graphite and Bi–Mg liquid alloys and (b) Cl2 evolution on graphite in MgCl2–NaCl–KCl at 550 °C were measured by the current interruption method, and electricity consumption of Mg electrolysis in the new Ti smelting process was estimated from these results.

Structural and electronic optimization of ring-graphene cathodes and their field emission properties

Cold field emission sources are capable of providing highly coherent and bright electron beams. However, they suffer from some well-known practical difficulties that have prevented their widespread use: unmanageably stringent ultrahigh vacuum requirements, relatively large current instabilities, and rapid emission decays in periods as short as 1–2 h, requiring regular flashing (Joule heating). This paper presents the microfabrication and a successful emission test of a micron-sized concentric ring-graphene cathode cold field emitter, without any observable wall collapse. The cathode is designed to have a nanometer size ring-edge, while its radius can measure several microns or larger, providing stable electron emission under high vacuum conditions. The turn-on electric field of a ring-cathode source can be dramatically lowered by introducing a thin layer of nickel nanoparticles by an in-situ focused ion beam process. The dependence of field enhancement on the anode-cathode distance and the ring-cathode radius has been systematically studied.

High field-emission current density from β-Ga2O3 nanopillars

Field emission from gallium oxide (β-Ga2O3) nanopillars, etched by Ne+ ion milling on β-polymorph (100) single crystals, is reported. A stable field emission current, with a record density over 100 A/cm2 and a turn on field of ∼ 30 V/μm, is achieved. We expect that the high field enhancement factor of about 200 at a cathode-anode distance of 1 μm can be further increased by optimizing the shape of the nanopillar apex. This work demonstrates that the material properties combined with an appropriate nano-patterning can make β-Ga2O3 competitive or better than other well-established field emitters.

The Effect of Process Variables on Work Piece Thickness and Glossiness from Metal Coating in Nickel-Chrome Metal Coating Process

Metal coating process is a lot of choices to improve the quality of materials from metals and non-metals. This is due to the metal coating process, the quality of the material can be maintained both in terms of quality and glossiness. Metal or electroplating coating processes are also used for protection against corrosion attacks and for decorative purposes. The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of immersion time, voltage, and distance of the electrode on the work piece layer thickness and glossiness resulting from metal coating. While the benefits of this study as a reference material for coating methods with various process variables by industry parties engaged in metal coating with electroplating techniques. The research variables are time: 15; 20; and 25 minutes, Voltage: 3; 4.5; and 6 volts, and the electrode distance: 10; 15; and 20 cm, other variables were made constant. The work piece used was made of steel metal the size of the plate size = 200 × 30 × 5 mm3 totalling 54 pieces. The research method used was an experiment with a 3 × 3 × 3 research design. The results of the study can be concluded that the longer the immersion time, the greater the voltage; and the closer the anode-cathode distance, it will affect the thicker the work piece surface layer resulting from metal coating. The smallest thickness of the surface layer was 4.5 um to the largest 10.1 um. In addition, the greater the thickness of the work piece surface layer as a result of metal coating, the greater the number of glossiness. The smallest glossiness number was 125 lux and the biggest glossiness number was 152 lux.

Electrolytes and its additives used in aluminum reduction cell: a review

The electrolyte is considered to play the role of blood in an aluminum reduction cell and performs several vital functions as the charge transfer, the mass dissolution and transfer, the electrode products separation and the electrical work dissipation. The proper performance of listed functions is completely determined by the physical and chemical properties, which namely are the electrical conductivity, the viscosity, the vapor pressure, the liquidus and solidus temperatures, the density, the surface tension, the solubility and the dissolution rate of oxides, aluminum, carbon and the various connections and by operating conditions, which namely are the temperature, the current density, the anode-cathode distance, etc. The electrolyte affects the current efficiency and the cell voltage, which determines the specific energy consumption and the total cost of aluminum. This is the reason why different electrolytes and additives have been in the spotlight of the researchers and the enterprises for decades. This article presents the brief information about the influence of additives in the cell utilizing traditionally used sodium cryolite and different low-temperature electrolytes on physical-chemical properties and concentrates on the latest works which have not been included in widely known textbooks. The article also contains new experimental results obtained by the authors and devoted to the effective electrical conductivity of suspended unconventional electrolytes.

Evaluation of Potential Residual Silica as Antireflective Layer for Selective Solar Surface of Black Chromium

Selective surfaces have the function of absorbing strongly the sunlight, while ideally losing little heat to the environment via convection and radiation. The present study sought to obtain a selective surface of black chromium coated with an antireflective (AR) layer based on sugarcane bagasse ash using copper as a substrate. From this selective surface the electrodeposition parameters (time, working distance, voltage) as well as the surface behavior were analyzed in order to determine if the AR layer provided an increase in the absorption levels of the film. By means of the present study it was possible to conclude that, in terms of the electrodeposition parameters evaluated, the anode-cathode distance of 5 cm stimulated the obtaining of higher levels of absorption. The addition of the antireflective layer on the black chromium films favored the increase of the absortance average in all the adopted parameter sets, besides reducing the standard deviation around the average. As for the microstructure of the obtained films, the increase of the parameter Ra promoted the increase of the absorption, due to the formation of optical traps.

Effect of Electron Irradiation on the Transport and Field Emission Properties of Few-Layer MoS2 Field-Effect Transistors

Electrical characterization of few-layer MoS2 based field effect transistors with Ti/Au electrodes is performed in the vacuum chamber of a scanning electron microscope in order to study the effects of electron beam irradiation on the transport properties of the device. A negative threshold voltage shift and a carrier mobility enhancement is observed and explained in terms of positive charges trapped in the SiO2 gate oxide, during the irradiation. The transistor channel current is increased up to three order of magnitudes after the exposure to an irradiation dose of 100e-/nm2. Finally, a complete field emission characterization of the MoS2 flake, achieving emission stability for several hours and a minimum turn-on field of about 20 V/um with a field enhancement factor of about 500 at anode-cathode distance of 1.5um, demonstrates the suitability of few-layer MoS2 as two-dimensional emitting surface for cold-cathode applications.

Improved performance Air bio-battery based on efficient oxygen supply with a gas/liquid highly-porous diaphragm cell

Performance of a glucose-driven bio-battery was improved by enhancing electrode characteristics and oxygen supply efficiency to a cathode. The bio-battery generates electric power from glucose through three enzymatic reactions using glucose dehydrogenase, diaphorase and bilirubin oxidase. A flexible and thin Pt electrode was employed instead of a glassy carbon (GC) electrode on which enzymes, a coenzyme, and mediators were immobilized by layer-by-layer method. The maximum current and power densities of the constructed bio-battery were 257 ± 22 μA/cm2 and 86 ± 3 μW/cm2, respectively, in 5 mM glucose solution. In addition, a newly designed compact gas/liquid diaphragm cell, which allowed to reduce the internal resistance by shortening the anode-cathode distance and enhance oxygen supply to a cathode using a highly-porous cotton mesh diaphragm, was implemented to the bio-battery to develop a high-performance Air bio-battery. As a result, improved Air bio-battery showed the maximum current and power densities of 451 ± 27 μA/cm2 and 162 ± 7 μW/cm2, which was 3.6-fold improvement from the previous GC electrode-based bio-battery. In addition, continuous operation for 210 min revealed high stability of power generation as it decreased by 3.3% at the end of operation. Additional supply of oxygen to a cathode exhibited proportional increase of the power density to the oxygen concentration, which demonstrates a promising potential of Air bio-battery for a high-performance and continuous powering device.

Tin and silver recovery from wave soldering dross.

This work proposes a method for the recovery of tin and silver from wave soldering dross produced during the manufacture of printed circuit boards. Samples of wave soldering dross were first subjected to carbothermic reduction to obtain an ingot containing the above metals plus other elements. This ingot was then subjected to electrorefining at different densities of electrical current, electrolyte flow rate, and cathode-anode separation distance, to determine the optimum conditions for recovering pure tin. Under such conditions, 82 wt% of the tin in the ingot was recovered at a purity of 99.94%. After subjecting ingots to continuous electrorefining under optimum conditions for 845 h, the slime collected at the anode was removed for the recovery of silver. This slime was subjected to thin-layer leaching with concentrated nitric acid. The leachate produced was subjected to copper-cementation; the silver adhering to the copper rod was collected by washing. This process recovered 92% of the silver in the wave soldering dross ingot at a purity of >99.6%. Some 99% of the copper entering the leachate from the copper rod during cementation was recovered by liquid-liquid extraction with 40% LIX84 (dissolved in EXXOL D100). This method could provide a rapid, inexpensive means of recovering pure tin and silver from wave soldering dross.

Study on removal of copper from nickel‑copper mixed solution by membrane electrolysis

In order to remove copper from nickel‑copper mixed solution, membrane electrolysis method is studied in this work. The carbon fiber cloth was used as electrode for membrane electrolysis, and carbon fiber cloth pretreatment parameters such as calcination atmosphere and calcination temperature were investigated. The results show that higher calcination temperature and oxidizing atmosphere were beneficial to improve the performance of carbon fiber cloth for membrane electrolysis. The influences of electrolysis operating parameters on copper removal were studied. Various parameters including initial Cu2+ concentration, anode-cathode distance, electrolysis voltage and electrolysis temperature were optimized. The residual Cu2+ concentration in solution could decrease from 25 g/L to 0.2 g/L under the optimal conditions. The removal of copper from nickel‑copper mixed solution could be effectively achieved by membrane electrolysis.

Evaluating tetracycline degradation pathway and intermediate toxicity during the electrochemical oxidation over a Ti/Ti4O7 anode

Tetracycline (TC) is one of the most widely used antibiotics with significant impacts on human health and thus it needs appropriate approaches for its removal. In the present study, we evaluated the performance and complete pathway of the TC electrochemical oxidation on a Ti/Ti4O7 anode prepared by plasma spraying. Morphological data and composition analysis indicated a compact coating layer on the anode, which had the characteristic peaks of Ti4O7 as active constituent. The TC electrochemical oxidation on the Ti/Ti4O7 anode followed a pseudo-first-order kinetics, and the TC removal efficiency reached 95.8% in 40 min. The influential factors on TC decay kinetics included current density, anode-cathode distance and initial TC concentration. This anode also had high durability and the TC removal efficiency was maintained over 95% after five times reuse. For the first time, we unraveled the complete pathway of the TC electrochemical oxidation using high-performance liquid chromatograph (HPLC) and gas chromatograph (GC) coupled with mass spectrometer (MS). ·OH radicals produced from electrochemical oxidation attack the double bond, phenolic group and amine group of TC, forming a primary intermediate (m/z = 461), secondary intermediates (m/z = 432, 477 and 509) and tertiary intermediates (m/z = 480, 448 and 525). The latter were further oxidized to the key downstream intermediate (m/z = 496), followed by further downstream intermediates (m/z = 451, 412, 396, 367, 351, 298 and 253) and eventually short-chain carboxylic acids. We also evaluated the toxicity change during the electrochemical oxidation process with bioluminescent bacteria. The bioluminescence inhibition ratio peaked at 10 min (55.41%), likely owing to the high toxicity of intermediates with m/z = 461, 432 and 477 as obtained from quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) analysis. The bioluminescence inhibition ratio eventually decreased to 16.78% in 40 min due to further transformation of TC and intermediates. By comprehensively analyzing the influential factors and complete degradation pathway of TC electrochemical oxidation on the Ti/Ti4O7 anode, our research provides deeper insights into the risk assessment of intermediates and their toxicity, assigning new perspectives for practical electrochemical oxidation to effectively eliminate the amount and toxicity of TC and other antibiotics in wastewater.

Analysis of Magnesium Droplets Characteristics and Separation Performance in a Magnesium Electrolysis Cell Based on Multiphysical Modeling

Magnesium production is one of the most energy-intensive industrial processes. The core reactor is the magnesium electrolysis cell, and its electrolysis efficiency is a crucial factor that profoundly affects the amount of energy consumed. This work concerns the optimization of the electrolysis cell based on a three-dimensional thermo–electro–magneto-hydrodynamics coupling model. The new method takes into account of three types of electrolyte circulations in the cell. A particle tracking method coupled with the multiphysical model is also developed. The new model is an innovative approach in the evaluation of the primary separation rate of the magnesium droplets (PSR). The PSR in the original cell is about 16.6%. The effects of current intensity, cathode–anode distance, diameters of gas bubbles and magnesium droplets on the improvement of the PSR are negligible, whereas an increase in anode width significantly improves the PSR. Using the new multi-field model, two new modified electrolysis cells are designed by optimizing the cathode structure. The newly designed cells improve the PSR’s by 30.1 and 61.9%, significantly improving their electrolysis efficiency.

Numerical Simulation of Multiphase Magnetohydrodynamic Flow and Deformation of Electrolyte–Metal Interface in Aluminum Electrolysis Cells

A computational fluid dynamics based multiphase magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) flow model for simulating the melt flow and bath–metal interface deformation in realistic aluminum reduction cells is presented. The model accounts for the complex physics of the MHD problem in aluminum reduction cells by coupling two immiscible fluids, electromagnetic field, Lorentz force, flow turbulence, and complex cell geometry with large length scale. Especially, the deformation of bath–metal interface is tracked directly in the simulation, and the condition of constant anode–cathode distance (ACD) is maintained by moving anode bottom dynamically with the deforming bath–metal interface. The metal pad deformation and melt flow predicted by the current model are compared to the predictions using a simplified model where the bath–metal interface is assumed flat. The effects of the induced electric current due to fluid flow and the magnetic field due to the interior cell current on the metal pad deformation and melt flow are investigated. The presented model extends the conventional simplified box model by including detailed cell geometry such as the ledge profile and all channels (side, central, and cross-channels). The simulations show the model sensitivity to different side ledge profiles and the cross-channel width by comparing the predicted melt flow and metal pad heaving. In addition, the model dependencies upon the reduction cell operation conditions such as ACD, current distribution on cathode surface and open/closed channel top, are discussed.

Investigation of key factors in preparation of alpha sources by electrodeposition

The electrodeposition for alpha source preparation, using several electrolyte solution-cathode material combinations, is investigated and evaluated. The investigated factors focused on the electrodeposition time, the applied current, electrolyte volume and anode-cathode distances for the conventional electrodeposition cell (with no external stirring or cooling system). The conditions (temperature and the solution pH) during the electrodeposition process were also studied and discussed. The optimized parameters for each system are provided, and evaluated for the usage in determination of actinides (uranium, plutonium, americium and curium radioisotopes) in various samples.

Effect of Ledge Shape on Temperature and Current Distribution of Hall-Heroult Cell: Modeling and Simulation

The major factor that determines the instability of molten aluminium pad is the current distribution in the Hall-Heroult cell. The magnitude of current and its distribution inside the Hall-cell depends on (i) total input current, (ii) anode - cathode distance, (iii) ledge shape and (iv) metal pool depth. The paper determined the effect ledge shape and anode-cathode distance (ACD) on current and temperature distribution of the Hall-cell mathematically. The software package (PHOENICS) is used to predict the temperature and current distribution of the cell at different operating parameters. The present work is part of an effort for developing a mathematical model, for the design and development of Hall-Cell. It is found that the bath temperature changes from 1302K to 1397K when the ACD changes from 4.5 to 5 cm and 1302K to 1209K when ACD changes from 4.5 to 4 cm. The simulation results revealed that the current direction changes from vertical to nearly horizontal on the surface of the bottom ledge. Therefore, for better control of the cell operation, continuous monitoring of the temperature and current is required.

A 1.9 kV/2.61 mΩ·cm2 Lateral GaN Schottky Barrier Diode on Silicon Substrate with Tungsten Anode and Low Turn-On Voltage of 0.35 V

In this letter, we report the achievement of a high-performance lateral GaN Schottky barrier diode (SBD) on a silicon substrate with a low turn- ON voltage ( <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">${V}_{ \mathrm{ON}}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> ) of 0.35 V and tungsten (W) as the anode. Non-field-plated lateral GaN SBDs with the anode–cathode distances ( <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">${L}_{\text {AC}}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> ) of 6, 10, 15, 20, and <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$25~\mu \text{m}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> demonstrate the reverse breakdown voltages of 0.6, 1.1, 1.25, 1.5, and 1.9 kV with the differential specific ON-resistances ( <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">${R}_{\text{ON}, \text {sp}}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> ) of 0.38, 0.72, 1.23, 1.87, and 2.61 <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\text{m}\Omega \cdot $ </tex-math></inline-formula> cm <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> , respectively. The power figure-of-merit (FOM) is calculated to be <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$ {1}\times 10^{ {3}}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> , <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$ {1.7}\times {10}^{ {3}}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> , <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$ {1.3}\times {10}^{ {3}}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> , <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$ {1.2}\times {10}^{ {3}}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> , and <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$ {1.4}\times {10}^{{3}}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> MW/cm <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> . To the best of our knowledge, this FOM of <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">${1.7}\times {10}^{{3}}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> MW/cm <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> is the highest among all the lateral GaN SBDs on a Si substrate. Combined with the ~10 <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">8</sup> current ON/OFF ratio at room temperature, the GaN SBD with the W anode shows a great promise for next-generation power electronics.

State and Parameter Estimation in Hall-Héroult Cells using Iterated Extended Kalman Filter

The measurement of individual anode currents in the Hall-Héroult process provides localized information that can be used to improve cell operation. One promising application is to estimate the local cell conditions, which are impracticable to measure regularly during the cell operation. This paper presents an approach to estimation of localized state variables and process variables, including the alumina concentration, anode-cathode distance and bath flow rate. This is achieved by using the Iterated Extended Kalman Filter (IEKF) with a discretized Hall-Héroult cell model. The results show that the proposed IEKF can produce more accurate estimation of the state variables and parameters compared to the conventional Extended Kalman Filter thanks to its robustness to ill-set initiation conditions.

P-GaN hybrid anode AlGaN/GaN diode with 1000 V operation

GaN plays an important role in compound semiconductor, which exhibits excellent electrical properties such as wide band gap (3.4 eV), high breakdown field strength (3.3 MV/cm), and high electron mobility (600 cm2/(Vs)). AlGaN/GaN heterojunction produces two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) with high density (11013 cm-2) and high electron mobility (2000 cm2/(Vs)) which are caused by strong piezoelectric and spontaneous polarization. The Si-based AlGaN/GaN devices emerge as a promising candidate for the nextgeneration switching application in power system due to 2DEG of AlGaN/GaN heterojunction. Turn-on and breakdown voltage are key parameters for diodes and they have a tradeoff between each other. These two parameters affect diode loss and power handling capability. For better properties, we propose a novel p-GaN hybrid anode AlGaN/GaN diode with high-resistance-cap-layer (HRCL) to optimize turn-on voltage and breakdown characteristics. Based on the p-GaN/AlGaN/GaN material structure, an HRCL is fabricated in the channel region by self-aligned hydrogen plasma treatment to improve the breakdown voltage. Hydrogen plasma is adopted to compensate for holes in the p-GaN to release electrons from the 2DEG channel, forming a high-resistivity area. The transmission line method tests the material after passivation, showing that its sheet resistance is 570 /□ and a contact resistance is 0.7 mm. In the HRCL p-GaN diode, negative charges can appear at the interface of HR-GaN/AlGaN due to polarization effect, which increases the vertical electric field in AlGaN and reduces the lateral electric field near the cathode in the p-GaN, compared with in the p-GaN diode without HRCL. The p-GaN in the anode region is reserved to regulate the turn-on voltage by depleting the underlying 2DEG. The p-GaN structure raises conduction band beyond the Fermi level, ensuring the reduction of 2DEG. The fabricated HRCL p-GaN diode exhibits a high breakdown voltage over 1000 V at Ileakage=110-4 A/mm with a cathode-anode distance Lac of 10 m and a turn-on voltage of +1.2 V when forward current is 1 mA/mm. These results indicate that the introduction of p-GaN hybrid anode and HRCL can enhance the electrical properties of AlGaN/GaN diode effectively. However, little attention has been paid to doping concentration in p-GaN. Study of the regulation of Mg2+ doping concentration on the turn-on voltage in p-GaN will be investigated in future to achieve a low forward turn-on voltage of the p-GaN HRCL diode.

Field emission from carbon nanotube fibers in varying anode-cathode gap with the consideration of contact resistance

Abstract

Computational Fluid Dynamics-Population Balance Model Simulation of Effects of Cell Design and Operating Parameters on Gas–Liquid Two-Phase Flows and Bubble Distribution Characteristics in Aluminum Electrolysis Cells

The effects of different cell design and operating parameters on the gas–liquid two-phase flows and bubble distribution characteristics under the anode bottom regions in aluminum electrolysis cells were analyzed using a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics-population balance model. These parameters include inter-anode channel width, anode–cathode distance (ACD), anode width and length, current density, and electrolyte depth. The simulations results show that the inter-anode channel width has no significant effect on the gas volume fraction, electrolyte velocity, and bubble size. With increasing ACD, the above values decrease and more uniform bubbles can be obtained. Different effects of the anode width and length can be concluded in different cell regions. With increasing current density, the gas volume fraction and electrolyte velocity increase, but the bubble size keeps nearly the same. Increasing electrolyte depth decreased the gas volume fraction and bubble size in particular areas and the electrolyte velocity increased.