Animal Health Officials Research Articles

ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ALTERNATIVE FMD EMERGENCY VACCINATION STRATEGIES IN THE MIDWESTERN UNITED STATES

AbstractAn outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in the United States would likely result in major costs to producers, consumers, and government. How animal health officials manage such an outbreak has substantial impact on probable losses. Without an emergency FMD vaccination strategy, producer and consumer losses of an FMD outbreak in the midwestern United States would likely approach $188 billion, and government costs would likely exceed $11 billion. In contrast, a high-capacity emergency vaccination program together with a large vaccination zone would reduce median consumer and producer losses to approximately $56 billion and government costs to a little more than $1 billion.

Community preparedness for highly pathogenic Avian influenza on Bali and Lombok, Indonesia

The Asia-Pacific region is the likeliest location for the next significant outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI). Indonesia has experienced HPAI H5N1 outbreaks in poultry and humans each year since 2003 and has had the highest case fatality rate for human cases. The purposes of this study were to capture the knowledge of avian influenza and of poultry-raising practices in two regions of Indonesia and to evaluate the impact and extent of activities undertaken to 2010 through the National Strategic Plan for Avian Influenza Control at the village level. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods was used to investigate the multiple influences on behaviours, decisions and actions taken by poultry-raising households, and by villages and communities, regarding the threat of HPAI. Between June 2010 and May 2011 a structured survey of 400 households was conducted on Lombok and of 402 on Bali, inviting Sector 3 (small-scale independent commercial poultry farms) and Sector 4 (village household) poultry raisers to participate. Focus groups and in-depth interviews were convened with key stakeholders, including livestock and animal health and public health officials, community leaders and villagers. From the focus group and in-depth interviews, it appears that the flow of information through the national HPAI control program has been efficient at the top levels (from national to provincial, then to districts and subdistricts). However, these findings show that effective transmission of information from subdistrict to rural village level and from village leaders to community members has been limited. The degree of community preparedness for HPAI on Bali and Lombok appears minimal. Knowledge of government activities was more extensive at Bali sites, while only limited government programs and activities occurred at the village level on Lombok. Activities conducted by government agencies from provincial to village level were limited in scope and need to be further developed to ensure safe poultry-handling practices and biosecurity measures. On both Bali and Lombok, community respondents knew the signs and symptoms of sick birds but did not differentiate well between HPAI and other bird diseases. On both islands, more than 60% of respondents were reluctant to report sudden deaths of poultry. The lack of a government compensation program for destroyed flocks contributed to this unwillingness to report. While the Indonesian government's planning efforts for HPAI are commendable, the plan has not been effective, as it depends on the cooperative actions of people with small rural farms who have not been consulted in the development of the plan, have not been adequately instructed on the nature of the plan, and perceive no benefits to themselves from prevention efforts. Context-appropriate mechanisms for communicating zoonotic risk and options for risk mitigation that do not result in net loss to poor households are also needed.

Practice of One Health approaches: bridges and barriers in Tanzania.

The practice of one health approaches in human and animal health programmes is influenced by type and scope of bridges and barriers for partnerships. It was thus essential to evaluate the nature and scope of collaborative arrangements among human, animal, and wildlife health experts in dealing with health challenges which demand inter-sectoral partnership. The nature of collaborative arrangement was assessed, and the respective bridges and barriers over a period of 12 months (July 20011 to June 2012) were identified. The specific objectives were to: (1) determine the proportion of health experts who had collaborated with other experts of disciplines different from theirs, (2) rank the general bridges for and barriers against collaboration according to the views of the health experts, and (3) find the actual bridges for and barriers against collaboration among the health experts interviewed. It was found that 27.0% of animal health officers interviewed had collaborated with medical officers while 12.4% of the medical officers interviewed had collaborated with animal health experts. Only 6.7% of the wildlife officers had collaborated with animal health experts. The main bridges for collaboration were instruction by upper level leaders, zoonotic diseases of serious impacts, and availability of funding. The main barriers for collaboration were lack of knowledge about animal/human health issues, lack of networks for collaboration, and lack of plans to collaborate. This thus calls for the need to curb barriers in order to enhance inter-sectoral collaboration for more effective management of risks attributable to infectious diseases of humans and animals.

A Review of Simulation Modelling Approaches Used for the Spread of Zoonotic Influenza Viruses in Animal and Human Populations

Increasing incidences of emerging and re-emerging diseases that are mostly zoonotic (e.g. severe acute respiratory syndrome, avian influenza H5N1, pandemic influenza) has led to the need for a multidisciplinary approach to tackling these threats to public and animal health. Accordingly, a global movement of 'One-Health/One-Medicine' has been launched to foster collaborative efforts amongst animal and human health officials and researchers to address these problems. Historical evidence points to the fact that pandemics caused by influenza A viruses remain a major zoonotic threat to mankind. Recently, a range of mathematical and computer simulation modelling methods and tools have increasingly been applied to improve our understanding of disease transmission dynamics, contingency planning and to support policy decisions on disease outbreak management. This review provides an overview of methods, approaches and software used for modelling the spread of zoonotic influenza viruses in animals and humans, particularly those related to the animal-human interface. Modelling parameters used in these studies are summarized to provide references for future work. This review highlights the limited application of modelling research to influenza in animals and at the animal-human interface, in marked contrast to the large volume of its research in human populations. Although swine are widely recognized as a potential host for generating novel influenza viruses, and that some of these viruses, including pandemic influenza A/H1N1 2009, have been shown to be readily transmissible between humans and swine, only one study was found related to the modelling of influenza spread at the swine-human interface. Significant gaps in the knowledge of frequency of novel viral strains evolution in pigs, farm-level natural history of influenza infection, incidences of influenza transmission between farms and between swine and humans are clearly evident. Therefore, there is a need to direct additional research to the study of influenza transmission dynamics in animals and at the animal-human interface.

Diagnosis of Cattle Diseases Endemic to Sub-Saharan Africa: Evaluating a Low Cost Decision Support Tool in Use by Veterinary Personnel

BackgroundDiagnosis is key to control and prevention of livestock diseases. In areas of sub-Saharan Africa where private practitioners rarely replace Government veterinary services reduced in effectiveness by structural adjustment programmes, those who remain lack resources for diagnosis and might benefit from decision support.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe evaluated whether a low-cost diagnostic decision support tool would lead to changes in clinical diagnostic practice by fifteen veterinary and animal health officers undertaking primary animal healthcare in Uganda. The eight diseases covered by the tool included 98% of all bovine diagnoses made before or after its introduction. It may therefore inform proportional morbidity in the area; breed, age and geographic location effects were consistent with current epidemiological understanding. Trypanosomosis, theileriosis, anaplasmosis, and parasitic gastroenteritis were the most common conditions among 713 bovine clinical cases diagnosed prior to introduction of the tool. Thereafter, in 747 bovine clinical cases estimated proportional morbidity of fasciolosis doubled, while theileriosis and parasitic gastroenteritis were diagnosed less commonly and the average number of clinical signs increased from 3.5 to 4.9 per case, with 28% of cases reporting six or more signs compared to 3% beforehand. Anaemia/pallor, weakness and staring coat contributed most to this increase, approximately doubling in number and were recorded in over half of all cases. Finally, although lack of a gold standard hindered objective assessment of whether the tool improved the reliability of diagnosis, informative concordance and misclassification matrices yielded useful insights into its role in the diagnostic process.Conclusions/SignificanceThe diagnostic decision support tool covered the majority of diagnoses made before or after its introduction, leading to a significant increase in the number of clinical signs recorded, suggesting this as a key beneficial consequence of its use. It may also inform approximate proportional morbidity and represent a useful epidemiological tool in poorly resourced areas.

The Mexican Animal Identification System: Current Situation, Problems, and Potential

Mexico initiated a federal animal identification (ID) system (SINIIGA) in 2003. The program is administered by an agency of the federal Department of Agriculture (SAGARPA) and has been used primarily to support a federal subsidy program for livestock producers. The program is conceptually well designed, but implementation thus far falls short of the potential and needs, most importantly in animal disease management. Although substantial numbers of animals have been tagged, relatively little progress has been made in developing a usable animal ID information system. Animal health officials currently are not actively involved in the development and use of the system.

The role of veterinary epidemiology in combating infectious animal diseases on a global scale: The impact of training and outreach programs

The effectiveness of detection and control of highly contagious animal diseases is dependent on a solid understanding of their nature and implementation of scientifically sound methods by people who are well trained. The implementation of specific detection methods and tools requires training and application in natural as well as field conditions. The aim of this paper is to present the design and implementation of training in disease investigation and basic veterinary epidemiology in selected countries using the Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) H5N1 Asia strain as a disease detection model. Indonesia, Egypt, Nigeria, Turkey, and Vietnam were each identified as either a priority country where AI was spreading rapidly or a country at risk for infection. In each of these countries, a training program on epidemiological concepts, field investigation methodology, and detection of H5N1 Asia strain cases was conducted. This report includes the impact of these training sessions on national animal health programs, including follow-up activities of animal health officers who went through these training sessions.

Changes in Poultry Handling Behavior and Poultry Mortality Reporting among Rural Cambodians in Areas Affected by HPAI/H5N1

BackgroundSince 2004, 21 highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 outbreaks in domestic poultry and eight human cases have been confirmed in Cambodia. As a result, a large number of avian influenza education campaigns have been ongoing in provinces in which H5N1outbreaks have occurred in humans and/or domestic poultry.Methodology/Principal FindingsData were collected from 1,252 adults >15 years old living in two southern provinces in Cambodia where H5N1 has been confirmed in domestic poultry and human populations using two cross-sectional surveys conducted in January 2006 and in November/December 2007. Poultry handling behaviors, poultry mortality occurrence and self-reported notification of suspect H5N1 poultry cases to animal health officials in these two surveys were evaluated. Our results demonstrate that although some at risk practices have declined since the first study, risky contact with poultry is still frequent. Improved rates of reporting poultry mortality were observed overall, but reporting to trained village animal health workers decreased by approximately 50%.Conclusions/SignificanceAlthough some improvements in human behavior have occurred, there are still areas—particularly with respect to the handling of poultry among children and the proper treatment of poultry and the surrounding household environment—that need to be addressed in public health campaigns. Though there were some differences in the sampling methods of the 2006 and 2007 surveys, our results illustrate the potential to induce considerable, potentially very relevant, behavioral changes over a short period of time.

Evaluation of pathways for release of Rift Valley fever virus into domestic ruminant livestock, ruminant wildlife, and human populations in the continental United States

To evaluate the feasibility for Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) to enter the continental United States by various routes as well as to identify states in which domestic and wild ruminant and human populations would be most vulnerable to exposure to RVFV. Pathways analysis. Animals, commodities, and humans transported from RVFV-endemic countries to the continental United States between 2000 and 2005. Initially, agent, host, and environmental factors important in the epidemiologic aspects of RVFV were used to develop a list of potential pathways for release of RVFV into the continental United States. Next, the feasibility of each pathway was evaluated by use of data contained in governmental and public domain sources. Finally, entry points into the continental United States for each feasible pathway were used to identify the domestic and wild ruminant and human populations at risk for exposure to RVFV. Feasible pathways for entry of RVFV into the continental United States were importation of RVFV-infected animals, entry of RVFV-infected people, mechanical transport of RVFV-infected insect vectors, and smuggling of live virus. Domestic ruminant livestock, ruminant wildlife, and people in 14 states (Alabama, California, Florida, Georgia, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia) appeared to be most vulnerable to exposure to RVFV. Pathways analysis can provide the requisite information needed to construct an effective targeted surveillance plan for RVFV to enable rapid detection and response by animal health and public health officials.

Information needs regarding the national animal identification system in the livestock auction market industry (2008)

The National Animal Identification System (NAIS) is a federal-level voluntary program that uses a streamlined information system designed to help animal health officials and producers respond to animal health threats in a timely manner.2 Electronic individual animal identification systems likely will be the popular choice among cattle producers who adopt individual animal identification systems. Because auction markets are the first market for many cattle, livestock markets are a natural place to implement animal identification scanning and recording. Therefore, it is important to understand livestock market operators' knowledge, concerns, views, and adoption of the NAIS and electronic animal identification systems. If livestock market operators do not understand the NAIS or animal identification systems they might misconstrue or misunderstand information on these systems. In addition, it is important to identify livestock market operators' concerns about electronic animal identification systems so issues can be addressed.

Descriptive summary of an outbreak of porcine post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) in New Zealand

CASE HISTORY: Investigations were conducted to determine the cause of an acute, multi-farm outbreak of porcine respiratory disease that included diarrhoea and subsequent loss of body condition in affected pigs. A definition for post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) including both clinical and pathological features, previously developed for the pig industry in New Zealand, was applied to the current outbreak. In addition to self-reporting by owners of affected farms, local veterinarians, disease and epidemiology consultants, and animal health officials from the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF) were involved in conducting farm visits and submission of diagnostic specimens. CLINICAL FINDINGS AND DIAGNOSIS: Pathogens known to be endemic in the pig industry in New Zealand as well as likely exotic diseases were excluded as causative agents of the outbreak. Clinical signs including dyspnoea, diarrhoea, and rapid loss of body condition were consistent with the New Zealand case definition for PMWS. Interstitial pneumonia, pulmonary oedema, generalised lymph-node enlargement, and presence of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) inclusion bodies were consistently identified in affected pigs. Classical swine fever virus (CSFv), Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSv), and Influenza virus were ruled out, using molecular and traditional virological techniques. Spread of the disease between farms was hypothesised to be facilitated by locally migrating flocks of black-backed seagulls. The original source of the disease incursion was not identified. DIAGNOSIS: Based on the consistent presence of circovirusassociated lesions in lymphoid tissues in combination with generalised enlargement of lymph nodes, histiocytic interstitial pneumonia, clinical wasting, and poor response to antibiotic therapy, a diagnosis of PMWS was made. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: PMWS should be considered in the differential diagnoses of sudden onset of respiratory dyspnoea, diarrhoea, and rapid loss of body condition in young pigs in New Zealand pig herds.

Avian Influenza in North and South America, 2002–2005

Between 2002 and 2005, three outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) occurred in the Americas: one outbreak in Chile (H7N3) in 2002, one outbreak in the United States (H5N2) in 2004, and one outbreak in Canada (H7N3) in 2004. The outbreak in Chile was limited to a large broiler breeder operation and a nearby turkey flock and represented the first outbreak of HPAI in that country. The outbreak of HPAI in the United States occurred in Texas and was limited to one premise where chickens were raised for sale in nearby live-bird markets. The outbreak in Canada was the largest of the three HPAI outbreaks, involving 42 premises and approximately 17 million birds in the Fraser Valley, British Columbia. In each of the HPAI outbreaks, the disease was successfully eradicated by depopulation of infected farms. All other reports of infections in poultry and isolations from wild bird species pertained to low pathogenicity avian influenza (LPAI) viruses. Animal Health Officials in Canada reported subtypes H3, H5, and H6 in domestic poultry, and H3, H5, H11, and H13 from imported and/or wild bird species. An LPAI H5N2 virus continues to circulate in Mexico and the Central American countries of Guatemala and El Salvador. Each country reported isolations of H5N2 virus from poultry and the large-scale use of inactivated and recombinant H5 vaccines in their AI control programs. In Colombia, AI was reported for the first time when antibodies to H9N2 were detected in chickens by routine surveillance. Intensive surveillance activities in the United States detected AI virus or specific antibodies to 13 of the 16 hemagglutinin (H1-H13) and all nine neuraminidase subtypes in live-bird markets, small holder farms, and in commercial poultry from 29 states. The largest outbreak of LPAI in the United States occurred in 2002, when 197 farms were depopulated (4.7 million birds) to control an outbreak in Virginia and surrounding states. The outbreak was caused by an LPAI H7N2 virus closely related to an H7N2 virus that has been circulating in the live-bird marketing system in the northeastern United States since 1994.

Role of Import and Export Regulatory Animal Health Officials in International Control and Surveillance for Animal Diseases

The challenges to those who regulate the import and export of animals and animal products are escalating, due to the evolving nature of animal and human disease agents. The diseases and agents of interest may include low pathogenic avian influenza, bluetongue, bovine spongiform encephalopathy, and foot-and-mouth disease. Fear of an incursion of an unknown or incompletely understood threat can significantly limit risk tolerance. The fear may be that an incursion will affect export trade or tourism. An incomplete knowledge of the animal health situation in the exporting country, due to insufficient surveillance for the disease agent of concern, may limit the application of science in import decisions. In addition, the disease agent may be inappropriately considered exotic if it has not been described. As a result, excessive safeguards for disease agents that do not present any new threat may be employed. To confront these challenges, we are striving toward transparency in international reporting. Moreover, regulatory import decisions exceeding the recommendations of the Terrestrial Animal Health Code and the Aquatic Animal Health Code of the World Organization for Animal Health must be fair and science-based.

Agroterrorism: Betting Far More than the Farm

Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and ScienceVol. 2, No. 4 Invited PaperAgroterrorism: Betting Far More than the FarmRoger BreezeRoger BreezeSearch for more papers by this authorPublished Online:5 Jan 2005https://doi.org/10.1089/bsp.2004.2.251AboutSectionsPDF/EPUB ToolsPermissionsDownload CitationsTrack CitationsAdd to favorites Back To Publication ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmail FiguresReferencesRelatedDetailsCited byRisks of introduction and economic consequences associated with African swine fever, classical swine fever and foot‐and‐mouth disease: A review of the literature14 December 2020 | Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, Vol. 68, No. 4Viruses and BioterrorismStrengthening Biosecurity in Iraq: Development of a National Biorisk Management System26 February 2016 | Frontiers in Public Health, Vol. 4Agroterrorism Targeting Livestock: A Review with a Focus on Early Detection Systems24 August 2013 | Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science, Vol. 11, No. S1The Microbial Rosetta Stone Central Agricultural Database: An Information Resource on High-Consequence Plant PathogensPlant Disease, Vol. 97, No. 8Control of Infectious Bioagents17 December 2012Animal Biowarfare Research: Historical Perspective and Potential Future Attacks31 May 2012 | Zoonoses and Public Health, Vol. 59, No. 8Livestock Agroterrorism: The Deliberate Introduction of a Highly Infectious Animal Pathogen4 October 2012 | Foodborne Pathogens and Disease, Vol. 9, No. 10Macroeconomic costs to large scale disruptions of food production: The case of foot- and-mouth disease in the United StatesEconomic Modelling, Vol. 29, No. 5Xylella fastidiosa: A Model for Analyzing Agricultural Biosecurity22 June 2010 | Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science, Vol. 8, No. 2Model could aid emergency response planning for foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks1 May 2008 | California Agriculture, Vol. 63, No. 3Simulation of foot-and-mouth disease spread within an integrated livestock system in Texas, USAPreventive Veterinary Medicine, Vol. 88, No. 4Political Communication and AgroterrorismStudies in Conflict & Terrorism, Vol. 31, No. 10Plant-Pathogenic Bacteria as Biological Weapons – Real Threats?Phytopathology®, Vol. 98, No. 10Economic Aspects of Agricultural and Food Biosecurity3 April 2008 | Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science, Vol. 6, No. 1A methodology for assessing the risk posed by the deliberate and harmful use of plant pathogens in EuropeEPPO Bulletin, Vol. 37, No. 2Agroterrorism: Where Are We in the Ongoing War on Terrorism?Journal of Food Protection, Vol. 70, No. 3Role of Import and Export Regulatory Animal Health Officials in International Control and Surveillance for Animal DiseasesAnnals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 1081, No. 1Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling in BiosurveillanceInfectious Diseases: Not Just a Health Matter Anymore Volume 2Issue 4Dec 2004 InformationCopyright 2004, Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.To cite this article:Roger Breeze.Agroterrorism: Betting Far More than the Farm.Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science.Dec 2004.251-264.http://doi.org/10.1089/bsp.2004.2.251Published in Volume: 2 Issue 4: January 5, 2005PDF download

Avian influenza in the Western Hemisphere including the Pacific Islands and Australia.

Between 1997 and 2001, there was one report of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in the Western Hemisphere and Pacific Basin. In 1997, in New South Wales, Australia, an outbreak caused by avian influenza (AI) virus subtype H7N4 involved both chickens and emus. All other reports of infections in poultry and isolations from wild bird species in the region pertained to low pathogenicity (LP) AI virus. Animal Health Officials in Canada reported isolations of subtypes H1, H6, H7, and H10 from domestic poultry and subtypes H3 and H13 from imported and wild bird species. In Mexico, the H5N2 LPAI virus, the precursor of the HPAI outbreak in 1994-95, was isolated from poultry in each year from 1997 to 2001. Since 1997, Mexico has used approximately 708 million doses of a killed H5N2 vaccine and an additional 459 million doses of a recombinant fowlpox-H5 vaccine in their H5N2 control program. In Central America, avian influenza was diagnosed for the first time when H5N2 LPAI virus was isolated from chickens in Guatemala and El Salvador in 2000 and 2001, respectively. The H5N2 virus was genetically similar to the H5N2 virus found in Mexico. Surveillance activities in the United States resulted in the detection of AI virus or specific antibodies in domestic poultry from 24 states. Eleven of the fifteen hemagglutinin (H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, H7, H9, H10, H11, and H13) and eight of the nine neuraminidase (N1, N2, N3, N4, N6, N7, N8, and N9) subtypes were identified. Two outbreaks of LPAI virus were reported in commercial table-egg producing chickens; one caused by H7N2 virus in Pennsylvania in 1996-98 and the other caused by H6N2 virus in California in 2000-01. In addition, isolations of H5 and H7 LPAI virus were recovered from the live-bird markets (LBMs) in the northeast United States.

The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) brucellosis eradication program in the United States

Efforts to eradicate brucellosis caused by Brucella abortus in the United States began in 1934 as part of an economic recovery program to reduce the cattle population because of the Great Depression and concurrent severe drought conditions. A number of states saw this as an opportunity to reduce the level of brucellosis, which was the most significant livestock disease problem in the US at the time. In 1934 and 1935, the reactor rate in adult cattle tested was 11.5%. In 1954, the magnitude of the brucellosis problem in the United States in terms of economics to the cattle industry and human health prompted Congress to appropriate funds for a comprehensive national effort to eradicate brucellosis. The brucellosis eradication program was designed as a cooperative effort between the federal government, the states, and livestock producers. As the science and technology of brucellosis has developed over the years through research and experience, the eradication program has been modified many times. As of 31 December 2000, there were no affected cattle herds in the United States. This was the first time in the history of the brucellosis program that the United States had no known brucellosis affected herds. However, brucellosis has a variable, sometimes quite lengthy incubation period, so it is expected that additional affected herds will be disclosed. It is likely that additional affected herds will be disclosed before brucellosis is finally eradicated from cattle. Animal health officials remain prepared to aggressively pursue any newly disclosed affected herds to eliminate the disease as quickly as possible. The State-Federal Brucellosis Eradication Program has made tremendous progress since its inception. In an eradication program, it is critically important to recognize that, despite all the tools that are available to eliminate the disease, an effective surveillance system is the critical first step that must be in place in order to be successful. It is imperative, not only to be able to find the disease and eliminate it, but to find it before it spreads to susceptible herds. When brucellosis can be identified, contained, and eliminated before spread occurs, eradication can be achieved.

Socioeconomic, health and management aspects of working donkeys in Moretele 1, North West Province, South Africa.

Structured interviews using a questionnaire were conducted to gather information on socioeconomic aspects, health, nutrition, breeding and management of working equids in 3 study areas of Moretele 1 near Hammanskraal, North West Province, South Africa. The questionnaire addressed questions about the role of animals with a focus on donkeys used for work in these areas. Extension and animal health officers and donkey owners participated. The analysis highlights the use of donkeys for transport of water, wood and people; that ticks, wounds and harness sores are the conditions reported most frequently by owners; and that the range for the body condition score index of 2.7-4.0 suggests that an overall adequate level of nutrition and management is maintained in the donkeys in these villages.

An outbreak of type C botulism in 12 horses and a mule.

A USDA Early Response Team investigated deaths of several horses and a mule in northern Arizona at the request of local animal health officials. Thirteen animals (12 horses and 1 mule) housed at 5 facilities in a 7.4 square mile area died between August 1998 and January 1999. Clinical signs consisted of muscular weakness that rapidly progressed to lateral recumbency. Ten animals had paresis of the tongue, throat, or lips. Affected animals appeared alert and were interested in eating and drinking, even while recumbent. All 13 animals were euthanatized. Clostridium botulinum type C was isolated from feces or intestinal contents from 3 affected horses. Preformed toxin was detected in samples of soil and bird droppings collected from a nearby horse burial site. It was hypothesized that the outbreak was a result of birds, presumably ravens, feeding at the burial site and at horse facilities in the area that transferred toxin to the affected animals.

Regulatory control of veterinary diagnostic test kits.

Veterinary diagnostic test kits are used in clinical practice and production medicine as a basis for prescribing vaccination and/or treatment regimens. These kits are also used by state and federal animal health officials to control or regulate the movement of animals. The regulation of such kits, which generally takes the form of establishing requirements for licensure, ensures that the kits conform to minimum standards for sensitivity, specificity and reproducibility. To qualify for licensing, diagnostic test kits should have consistent performance characteristics.

The National Animal Health Monitoring System: A Source of On-Farm Information

The National Animal Health Monitoring System is a program of the USDA:APHIS:Veterinary Services designed to collect, analyze, interpret, and disseminate data on the management and health of US livestock, poultry, and aquaculture populations. The system is comprised of a national program staff, the National Veterinary Services Laboratories, and a field component that includes state and federal animal health officials distributed throughout the United States. The system uses a variety of approaches (large national studies, on-going monitoring, and target short-term studies) to address high priority objectives for US animal agriculture defined through a far-reaching information-needs assessment process.