Animal Body Parts Research Articles

The Metaphors “Human-Animal”, “Animal-Human” in T. Morrison’s Novel “Beloved”

Introduction. The study investigates the role of the metaphors “human-animal”, “animalhuman” based on the novel “Beloved” by T. Morrison. The relevance of the research lies in the lack of knowledge of the linguistic specifics of this landmark novel for modern American literature, in the absence of research to identify and analyze key metaphors reflecting the author's conceptualization of reality.Methodology and sources. The authors of this article, relying on semantic and cognitive approaches, consider metaphor as a combination of two planes: linguistic and mental. To describe the mechanism of metaphorical transfers, the article uses the proposed by J. Lakoff and M. Johnson, terms characterizing the interaction of two knowledge structures: the source sphere and the target sphere.Results and discussion. The study showed that the metaphor “man-animal” becomes one of the most productive in the novel. This metaphorical structure includes the following elements of the source sphere: animal names; animal properties; animal body parts; objects characterizing animal activities; actions carried out in relation to animals and animals themselves; people performing actions in relation to animals. The relevance of this metaphor and the variety of sources of transference is dictated by the theme of the novel, comprehending one of the most acute problems of American history – the theme of slavery. The disenfranchised position of a human slave, his “animal” dependence on the slave owner forms the conceptual basis of most metaphorical transfers within this lexical and semantic field. The metaphor “animal-human” is used less often and serves, first of all to enhance the contrast between the life of a human slave and an animal who sometimes feels more confident and freer. This metaphorical structure includes the following elements of the source sphere: forms of addressing a person, the names of the characters in the book, the title of a person, human actions, human properties, objects associated with a person.Conclusion. In the novel “Beloved” by T. Morrison, the metaphor is a significant element of the textual structure reflecting the author's linguistic picture of the world. Especially productive are the mutual likenesses of man and animal, figuratively interpreting the life and attitude of a human slave who is regularly subjected to physical and moral violence.

Discrete element models for understanding the biomechanics of fossorial animals.

The morphological features of fossorial animals have continuously evolved in response to the demands of survival. However, existing methods for animal burrowing mechanics are not capable of addressing the large deformation of substrate. The discrete element method (DEM) is able to overcome this limitation. In this study, we used DEM to develop a general model to simulate the motion of an animal body part and its interaction with the substrate. The DEM also allowed us to easily change the forms of animal body parts to examine how those different forms affected the biomechanical functions. These capabilities of the DEM were presented through a case study of modeling the burrowing process of North American Badger. In the case study, the dynamics (forces, work, and soil displacements) of burrowing were predicted for different forms of badger claw and manus, using the model. Results showed that when extra digits are added to a manus, the work required for a badger to dig increases considerably, while the mass of soil dug only increases gradually. According to the proposed efficiency index (ratio of the amount of soil dug to the work required), the modern manus with 5 digits has indeed biomechanical advantage for their fossorial lifestyle, and the current claw curvature (25.3 mm in radius) is indeed optimal. The DEM is able to predict biomechanical relationships between functions and forms for any fossorial animals. Results can provide biomechanical evidences for explaining how the selective pressures for functions influence the morphological evolution in fossorial animals.

2-Oxo-imidazole dipeptides in meat.

2-Oxo-imidazole dipeptides (2-oxo-IDPs) are highly functional, but it is unclear whether 2-oxo-IDPs exist in meat. Here, we measured 2-oxo-IDPs levels in meat and observed that they varied according to animal species and body parts. In addition, 2-oxo-IDPs in chicken breast extract increased after aeration in the presence of CuSO4/ascorbate, suggesting the potential of elevated 2-oxo-IDPs in effective usage of meat.

‘Where the Wild Things Are’: Etruscan Hunting and Trophy Display at Poggio Civitate (Murlo), Italy

An integrated study of the zooarchaeological, iconographic, and artefactual data from the Etruscan site of Poggio Civitate (Murlo, Italy), inhabited from the eighth to the sixth century bc, reveals intra-site differences in the distribution and disposal of animal body parts and species represented, including wild animals. Smaller mammals and birds that would be trapped are encountered more frequently in the site's workshop area and larger prey (deer, wolf, bear, and aurochs) that would be hunted are found more often in the area of the elite residence. We suggest that some of these remains are evidence that hunting was for the purpose of trophy display by the elites of Poggio Civitate and we discuss the social implications of such an activity in this community.

Snake venom – An unconventional recreational substance for psychonauts in India

Psychoactive substances have been used by humankind for recreational purposes since time immemorial. The psychoactive properties of these substances are known to alter the consciousness, mood, and perception of people taking them. While the use of alcohol, opioids, and cannabinoids for recreational purposes has been researched thoroughly, cases of using psychoactive fauna or animal body parts for getting a ‘high’ are seldom reported. One such psychoactive substance used in India is snake venom. Snake venom has been reported to cause mood alteration, nociception, lethargy, and blurring of vision, and hence requires a careful review to delve into whether the recreational effects felt by the users can be attributed to constituents of snake venom or are solely due to self-induced effects.

Research and Development of Preclinical Overhauser-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging.

Significance: Imaging free radicals, including reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species, can be useful for understanding the pathology of diseases in animal disease models, as they are related to various physiological functions or diseases. Among the methods used for imaging free radicals, Overhauser-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (OMRI) has a short image acquisition time and high spatial resolution. Therefore, OMRI is used to obtain various biological parameters. In this study, we review the methodology for improving the biological OMRI system and its applications. Recent Advances: The sensitivity of OMRI systems has been enhanced significantly to allow the visualization of various biological parameters, such as redox state, partial oxygen pressure, and pH, in different body parts of small animals, using spin probes. Furthermore, both endogenous free radicals and exogenous free radicals present in drugs can be visualized using OMRI. Critical Issues: To acquire accurate biological parameters at a high resolution, it is essential to increase the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) excitation efficiency and achieve a high enhancement factor. In addition, the size and magnetic field strength also need to be optimized for the measurement target. Future Directions: The advancement of in vivo OMRI techniques will be useful for understanding the pathology, diagnosis, and evaluation of therapeutic effects of drugs in various disease models. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 37, 1094-1110.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations governing prey choice by hunters in a post-war African forest-savannah macromosaic.

Overhunting typically increases during and after armed conflicts, and may lead to regional-scale defaunation. The mitigation of hunting impacts is complex because, among other reasons, several intrinsic and extrinsic motivations underpin the elevated deployment of hunting practices. Here we present the first study focusing on these motivations in a post-war zone. Following persistently heavy hunting pressure during the 27-year Angolan civil war, the offtake of small to medium-bodied species has increased recently as a result of large mammal depletion. However, prey choice associated with different motivations varied in terms of species trophic level and body size. While most residents hunted large-bodied species to maximize revenues from wildlife trade, many low-trophic level smaller species were harvested to meet local subsistence demands because they were more palatable and could be captured using artisanal traps near hunters' households. Mainly low-trophic level species were killed in retaliation for crop-raiding or livestock depredation. Considering all game species sampled in this study, 96% were captured to attend two or more motivations. In addition, hunting associated with different motivations was partitioned in terms of age and gender, with prey acquisition for the wildlife trade primarily carried out by adult men, while hunting to meet local subsistence needs and inhibit human-wildlife conflicts were carried out by adult men and women, children and even the elderly. In natural savannah areas lacking fish as a source of protein, a higher number of species was selected to supply both the meat trade and subsistence, while more species in forest areas were targeted for trade in animal body parts and conflict retaliation. Finally, local commerce in bushmeat and other body parts accrued higher domestic revenues compared to any alternative sources of direct and indirect income. However, these financial benefits were at best modest, largely unsustainable in terms of prey population collapses, and generated high long-term costs for the local to regional scale economy and native biodiversity.

A Review of Bioinspired Vibration Control Technology

Due to huge demand in engineering, vibration control technology and related studies have always been at the frontiers of research. Although traditional vibration control methods are stable and reliable, they have obvious shortcomings. Through evolution and natural selection, certain body-parts of animals in the natural world have been cleverly constructed and well designed. This provides a steady stream of inspiration for the design of vibration control equipment. The prime objective of this review is to highlight recent advances in the bionic design of vibration control devices. Current bionic vibration control devices were classified, and their bionic principles were briefly described. One kind was the bionic device based on the brain structure of the woodpecker, which is mostly used to reduce vibration at high frequencies. Another kind of bionic device was based on animal leg structure and showed outstanding performance in low frequency vibration reduction. Finally, we briefly listed the problems that need to be solved in current bionic vibration control technology and gave recommendations for future research direction.

Miten kuvailla vihaa? Viron ja suomen idiomien vertailu kognitiivisen kielitieteen näkökulmasta

Tässä artikkelissa vertailemme vihan emootiota välittäviä viron- ja suomenkielisiä kuvaannollisia ilmauksia. Selitämme niiden erikoislaatua idiomien merkityspiirteillä ja analysoimme ilmauksia metaforateorian viitekehystä käyttäen. Sekä suomen että viron vihaidiomien kielikuvat perustuvat laajalti ruumiilliseen metonymiaan; lisäksi näissä kielissä on käytössä kansainvälisesti levinneitä käsitemetaforia kuten viha on kuuma neste astiassa, vihan intensiivisyys on kuumuutta, viha on tulta. Molemmissa kielissä ilmenee vihatilanteen käsitteistämisen vaiheittaisuus (vihan synty, sen vaikutus kokijaan, pyrkimys kontrolloida vihaa, kontrollin menetys, vihainen käyttäytyminen). Suomen kielessä vihaa käsitteistetään aivoihin ja päähän liittyvän toiminnan kautta, kun taas virossa kokija kuvaillaan astiana ja viha nesteenä. Molemmissa kielissä esiintyy hyperbolista kuvaannollisuutta. Virossa vihaista ihmistä karrikoidaan eläinten ruumiinosiin viittaamalla, suomessa korostuu autoaggressiivinen käyttäytymismalli. *** How to describe anger? A comparison of Estonian and Finnish idioms from the perspective of cognitive linguistics This study focuses on a comparison of two sister languages, Estonian and Finnish. The purpose is to compare the idiomatic expressions which describe the emotion of anger in order to find out the similarities and differences in its conceptualisation and lexicalisation. The findings are interpreted by using the framework of cognitive metaphor theory. The idioms of both languages fit onto the five-stage scenario like folk model of anger (the offense and beginning of anger; the (physiological) effects of anger on Self; the attempt to control the emotion; losing the control; retribution i.e. aggressive behaviour). The cognitive model represents these aspects of the anger event which are conceptualised by using figurative expressions. Both languages provide a rich array of expressions motivated by cognitive metonymies. The emotion is described by referring to its bodily symptoms, i.e. the expected changes in the position or function of one’s body parts (both internal and external). The descriptions vary from realistic (e.g., rusikat näitama (Est) ‘to demonstrate aggressivity’, lit. ‘to show one’s fist’) to unrealistic and even absurd ones (e.g., vetää herneet nenään (Fin) ‘to become angry’, lit. ‘to aspirate peas into one’s nose’). The differences lie in particular elements of the (human) body or physiological processes these languages focus on: Finnish idioms refer also to the (negative) activation of the brain and to a pattern of autoaggressive behaviour while the Estonian idioms pay more attention to the feeling of pressure in one’s chest and – on the other hand – also refers to the body parts of (domestic) animals. The latter expressions mix the metonymies with metaphoric mapping man is an animal and subject the (intensity of) emotional reaction to ridicule. In regard to the cognitive metaphors, some widespread ones could be detected in both of the languages, namely anger is hot fluid in a container, the intensity of anger is heat and anger is fire. Estonian tends to exploit the metaphor anger is fluid in a container more widely, by specifying the nature of fluids (such as poison and beer/alcohol) and the nature of containers such as one’s heart and spirit. In Estonian also the metaphor anger is a natural force is used in order to conceptualise one’s inability to control the emotion. The reifying metaphor experiencer is a machine seems to be a Finnish peculiarity. The results were found to reinforce the results of a previous study into the literal concepts of anger by Estonians and Finns in which the concepts were found to be very similar with only minor differences in respect of the action tendencies. The Estonians interviewed in the previous study stated that they would prefer staying passive while angry. Similarly, the Estonian idioms in the present study reflect the aspects of containing the emotion and its effects on the experiencing Self. The Finns, in contrast, believed that they would prefer being active or moving, and the Finnish idioms reflect some interesting patterns of autoaggressive behaviour (e.g. polttaa hihansa , lit. ‘to burn one’s sleeves’ or repiä pelihousunsa , lit. ‘to shred one’s game shorts’.

Ethnozoology among the Berbers: pre-Islamic practices survive in the Rif (northwestern Africa)

BackgroundEthnozoological knowledge is less documented than ethnobotanical. With this field study, we aim to record and analyze the Riffian Berber knowledge about the use of animals in traditional human and veterinary medicine. Our research question is what is their knowledge of ethnozoological practices?MethodsWe performed semi-structured interviews with local inhabitants in Riffian vernacular language. The reliability of the sampling effort was assessed by a rarefaction curve. Data were compared with previous studies in order to determine the geographical and historical extensions of described uses and possible conservation implications for the species used.ResultsWe obtained information regarding 107 ethnozoological uses based on 197 use reports. Among the 31 species used, mammals were most frequently cited. Diseases related to the traditional medicinal system were most frequently treated with these resources, as well as those of the respiratory, digestive, and musculoskeletal systems. Thirty percent of uses are associated with magico-religious practices. Only three of the species used are threatened at the global level, two of them extinct in the study area, indicating low potential damage to regional biodiversity from current practices utilizing native animals. Within modern Morocco, Riffians have continued practicing ethnozoological uses anathema to Islam, like the consumption of animals considered impure (dogs, jackals, wild boars, and hyenas).ConclusionsThe use of primarily mammalian species and of many animal body parts is likely related to the Berber belief in homology between the area of the human body in which the ailment occurs and the corresponding animal body part. These findings unveil the nature of ethnozoological practices, highly linked to folklore and culture-bound conditions, and lacking in the Western empirical rationale for nearly one third of reported uses. The consumption of animals considered impure according to Islam was probably initiated before the conquering of the Maghreb by Arabs in the seventh century and was maintained through the secular isolation of Riffians in mountain areas. This can reflect traditional healing habits being maintained over thousands of years.

Synthesis, characterization and application of gelatine and dithiocarbamylated chitin

Introduction: Gelatin or gelatine is a translucent, colorless, flavorless, and biodegradable material obtained from collagen present in animal body parts, such as skin, bones, and connective tissues of animals, e.g., domestic cattle, chicken, pigs, and fish. It is a mixture of peptides and proteins obtained by acid and alkaline processing of collagen and is commonly used as a gelling agent in food, pharmaceuticals, photographic films and papers, and cosmetics. Dithiocarbamates (DTC) are well known adsorbents (1-2). We reported preparation and characterization of dithiocarbamylated chitin (CHDTC) in a previous communication (3). CHDTC was found to possess good adsorption capacity, but recovery of adsorbent was not convenient. Therefore, it was envisaged to blend CHDTC with gelatine to not only enhance adsorption capacity but enable reuse of adsorbent also. Methods: Gelatine was blended with CHDTC and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) to prepare an asymmetric membrane (AMCG), which was characterized by FTIR spectral analysis, powder X-ray diffraction measurements and scanning electron microscopy. Results & Discussion: Adsorption of crystal violet dye from its aqueous solution in 5 to 30 mg/L concentration range by AMCG was investigated using ultraviolet spectrophotometric measurements. Adsorption isotherm study indicated that Langmuir equation fitted better than the Freundlich, Temkin and Dubinin-Radushkevich equations, indicating adsorption process mainly to be monolayer. Adsorption kinetics studies suggested pseudo second order kinetics. AMCG was found to be very efficient adsorbent and maximum adsorption capacity was found to be 500 mg/g for crystal violet. Adsorption was studied at pH 4, 7 and 9. Adsorption was most rapid at pH 9 and almost 95% of crystal violet was observed within 1 h. Further, four adsorption/desorption cycles were followed, which clearly indicated AMCG to be a potential adsorbent for recycling of water from industrial effluents. Conclusions: AMCG is a suitable adsorbent for recycling of wastewater especially from industrial effluents. It shows high adsorbent capacity and fast removal of crystal violet as a model pollutant. Monolayer adsorption process enables recycling of adsorbent and recovery of the valuable compounds/ materials from effluents. Keywords: Recycling of water, Gelatine, Dithiocarbamylated chitin, Dye adsorption. Acknowledgment: Authors are thankful to Central Instrumentation Facility Laboratory, Govt. Science College, Jabalpur for XRD and FTIR spectral analysis.

The global magnitude and implications of legal and illegal wildlife trade in China

AbstractChina is one of the largest consumer markets in the international legal and illegal wildlife trade. An increasing demand for wildlife and wildlife products is threatening biodiversity, both within China and in other countries where wildlife destined for the Chinese market is being sourced. We analysed official data on legal imports of CITES-listed species in five vertebrate classes (mammals, reptiles, amphibians, birds and fish), and on enforcement seizures of illegally traded wildlife, during 1997–2016. This is the first study that collates and analyses publicly available data on China's legal and illegal wildlife trade and considers a broad range of species. Specifically, we estimated the scale and scope of the legal and illegal wildlife trade, quantified the diversity of species involved, and identified the major trading partners, hotspots and routes associated with illegal trade. Our findings show that substantial quantities of wildlife have been extracted globally for the Chinese market: during 1997–2016 over 11.5 million whole-organism equivalents and 5 million kg of derivatives of legally traded wildlife, plus over 130,000 illegally traded animals (alive and dead) and a substantial amount of animal body parts and products, were imported into China. Although measures to reduce demand and alleviate poverty are crucial to curb unsustainable and illegal wildlife trade in the longer term, China's wildlife regulators and enforcers must take urgent measures to disrupt the supply chains from source to market.

Preservative chemicals as a new health risk related to traditional medicine markets in western Africa

Health risks associated to the use of tropical wildlife have so far been envisioned through the lens of zoonotic pathogens spread by the bushmeat trade, putting aside the equally vibrant network of traditional medicine markets (TMMs). We collected information on the preservative techniques used for animal body parts from TMMs in Benin through a semi-structured questionnaire addressed to 45 sellers. We show that a recent shift from traditional preservative techniques using harmless treatments towards modern techniques –involving the recurrent use of hazardous chemicals (such as Sniper)– is likely to pose a serious health risk to practitioners and consumers of animal parts from TMMs in Benin. We conclude that the non-regulation of the TMM activities represents a critical risk to both biodiversity conservation and human health in western Africa.

Mammalian species identification using ISSR-HRM technique.

Wildlife trading and the illegal hunting of wildlife are contributing factors to the biodiversity crisis that is presently unfolding across the world. The inability to control the trade of animal body parts or available biological materials is a major challenge for those who investigate wildlife crime. The effective management of this illegal trade is an important facet of wildlife forensic sciences and can be a key factor in the enforcement of effective legislation surrounding the illegal trade of protected and endangered species. However, the science of wildlife forensics is limited by the absence of a comprehensive database for wildlife investigations. Inter-simple sequence repeat markers (ISSR) coupled with high resolution melting analysis (HRM) have been effectively used for species identification of 38 mammalian species. Six primers of the ISSR markers were chosen for species identification analysis. From six ISSR primers resulting in a range of accuracy of 33.3%-100% and 100% in terms of precision in every primer. Furthermore, 161 mammalian samples were 100% distinguished to the correct species using these six ISSR primers. ISSR-HRM analysis was successfully employed in determining mammal identification among varying mammalian species, and thus could serve as an effective alternative tool or technique in the species identification process. This option would offer researchers a heightened level of convenience in terms of its performance and the ease with which researchers or field practice veterinarians would be able to interpret results in effectively identifying animal parts at wildlife investigation crime scenes.

СЛОВОТВІРНІ ОСОБЛИВОСТІ ПРАСЛОВ’ЯНСЬКИХ СОМАТИЗМІВ

The naming of body parts, acting as one of the most noticeable layers of vocabulary, which reflects the knowledge of native speakers about the world around them, and their idea of both their own body and the body of animals, is the subject of constant attention of linguists. In modern linguistics, as in the humanities in general, the anthropocentric approach to the separation of somatic vocabulary prevails, when only parts of the human body are included in body parts. However, such a view of the realm of the corporeal and, moreover, the understanding of the pair “somatic – mental” only as one that applies to a man, denies the corporeality (however, as well as the realm of the psyche) of other living organisms ‒ animals. Therefore, we consider it appropriate to include the names of body parts of animals as somatic names. The article found that the Proto-Slavic language had a fairly extensive system of names of body parts. Many somatisms called parts of the body of both humans and animals. The somatic lexical subsystem includes such large groups of nouns to denote parts of the human and animal body, as: sonymic, osteonymic, splanchnonymic, angionimic, myonymic, sensonymic, neoplasmonimic. The object of study is the vocabulary to denote parts of the human and animal body, including the name of the head and its parts, neck and torso, skeleton and bones, cardiovascular and circulatory system, internal organs, muscles, human and animal senses, and also the names of neoplasms recorded in monuments of different styles and genres and historical dictionaries that reflect the vocabulary of the Proto-Slavic period. The purpose of the article is to carry out word-formation analysis of somatic names in the history of the Ukrainian language of the Proto-Slavic era. The main research methods are descriptive, comparative-historical, structural (component) analysis. The description of somatic names is carried out according to a complex method that combines semantic-word-forming and etymological aspects of the study. The authors found that the derivation of somatic names in the Proto-Slavic language occurred in two ways: by morphological and semantic word formation. The most productive, among morphological, way of word formation of somatic names of the pre-written period was suffixation, much less active in derivation of new words was confixation, prefix and composite word formation was represented by single formations. The peculiarity of the derivational semantics of somatisms on the territory of ancient Slavia is that some formants already lost their diminutive meaning in pre-written times. Non-morphological methods were represented by semantic derivation, when somatisms were created by transferring meaning on the basis of similarity, which later laid the foundations for the formation of a significant layer of somatic vocabulary. Prospects for the study are a more detailed analysis of the development and formation of somatic names in the dialects of the Ukrainian language, as well as the creation of principles for concluding a terminological basis of natural, including medical, sphere based on specific Ukrainian lexical material.

HOX paralogs selectively convert binding of ubiquitous transcription factors into tissue-specific patterns of enhancer activation.

Gene expression programs determine cell fate in embryonic development and their dysregulation results in disease. Transcription factors (TFs) control gene expression by binding to enhancers, but how TFs select and activate their target enhancers is still unclear. HOX TFs share conserved homeodomains with highly similar sequence recognition properties, yet they impart the identity of different animal body parts. To understand how HOX TFs control their specific transcriptional programs in vivo, we compared HOXA2 and HOXA3 binding profiles in the mouse embryo. HOXA2 and HOXA3 directly cooperate with TALE TFs and selectively target different subsets of a broad TALE chromatin platform. Binding of HOX and tissue-specific TFs convert low affinity TALE binding into high confidence, tissue-specific binding events, which bear the mark of active enhancers. We propose that HOX paralogs, alone and in combination with tissue-specific TFs, generate tissue-specific transcriptional outputs by modulating the activity of TALE TFs at selected enhancers.

ETNOZOOLOGI SUKU DAYAK MAYAN UNTUK OBAT-OBATAN DI DESA MENSUSAI KECAMATAN SUHAID KABUPATEN KAPUAS HULU

Dayak Mayan is the only tribe in Mensusai Village, Suhaid District, Kapuas Hulu Regency. They utilize natural products in the form of animals or animals for daily needs such as consumption needs (protein), for traditional rituals, medication, mystical and commercial activities. Animals are used for medecine based on experience and tradition for generations. The research objective was to obtain data of animals species that used as medicine and to obtain data on the processing and usage of animals as medicine by the Dayak Mayan in Mensusai Village, Suhaid District, Kapuas Hulu Regency. The method used are survey method, respondents was selected by snowball sampling techniques and data collection using a questionnaire. Based on result research that there are 14 types of animals that are believed by the Dayak Mayan Community and are commonly used or used as medicine. Animal body parts that are used for treatment are thorns, flesh, bile, fur, blood, scales, fat, honey and skin. How to use it by being stuck in the river, eaten, drunk, taped to the broken part and smeared.Keywords: Dayak Mayan Tribe, Ethnozoological, Medicine

동물 부위 은유의 특징과 작용 원리

In this study, we focused on the metaphors of animal body parts, explained characteristics and principles of the conceptualization, and discussed how these metaphorical expressions can be expanded. In chapter 2, we dealt with the correlation between animal metaphors and the metaphors of animal body parts and pointed out that the latter show more complex aspects than the former in the conceptualization. In chapter 3, we divided the metaphorical expressions of animal body parts into two types according to their constructions to examine how they are conceptualized. The metaphorical expressions consisting of solely an animal body part are mainly associated with the negative valuation if it correspond to a human body part. Otherwise they are mostly influenced by the frame of UP-DOWN metaphor. The metaphorical expressions consisting of an animal plus an animal body part are usually associated with the low valuation if the focus of their source domain is figure but they are affected by the symbol of the animal and the function of the animal body part if the focus of their source domain is function. In chapter 4, we captured the networks from the metaphors of animal body parts and revealed how the metaphorical expressions be expanded through these networks. This study emphasized that one can explain and predict the expandability of metaphorical expressions if they examine aspects of the expansion by the networks from the metaphors of animal body parts and the target domains mapping them in discourse contexts.

Veterinary pathological collections: yesterday - today - tomorrow

History, relevance and development of veterinary pathological collections are presented by analyzing and comparing the collections from Berlin, Munich, Vienna and Zurich of the 19th and 20th century. The indices of the collections are analyzed according to the frequency of animal species, body parts, organs and disease processes or etiologies respectively. Collection differences allow to draw conclusions on the founder of the collection and historical significance. Each collection was part of a university and thus involved in teaching and research. This often ensured the continuous existence of the collections. Nevertheless, changing teaching methods made pathological collections increasingly redundant. A comparison with other university collections, such as those of the University of Zurich, show new application aspects for existing collections and required measurement are discussed.

FORMATION OF THE EXTERIOR OF THE COWS OF THE UKRAINIAN BLACK- AND-WHITE DAIRY BREED UNDER THE ABSORPTIVE CROSSOVER

During the last decade the world Gene pool of the best cattle breeds is intensively used in Ukraine with the aim to improve productive qualities of animals. In particular, the improvement of dairy cattle includes intensive usage of gene pool of Holstein breed, as its level of milk productivity is the best in the world. The creation of new genotype caused permanent control on the exterior peculiarities of animals and the nature of their connection with productive features. On this basis the aim of our researches was to learn formation of the exterior of Ukrainian Black-and-White dairy breed under the absorptive crossover.
 The researches were conducted at agricultural LCC “Lyshche” of Lutsk region of Volyn oblast on heifers (n = 1164) and full-grown cows (n = 596) of different genotype of Ukrainian Black-and-White dairy breed. There were formed 5 groups of animals: I – cows with Holstein share heredity of 75% and lower, II – with Holstein share heredity 75.1–81.25%, III – with Holstein share heredity 81.26–87.50%, IV – with Holstein share heredity 87.51–93.75% and V – with Holstein share heredity over 93.75%.
 The assessment of exterior was conducted on the measurements of body parts of heifers and full-grown cows on the retrospective analysis. The following measurements were taking into account: height at the withers, breast depth, breast width, chest area behind the shoulder blades, hips width, oblique corpus length and girth of the metacarpus which were used to measure indices of body constitution.
 It is well-known that the exterior of heifers is the criteria of selection of cows into a herd and the assessment if bulls by the type of daughter’s body constitution. It is established that the heifers and cows of the Ukrainian Black-and-White dairy breed under control were quite high (height at the withers – 132.3 and 138.9 cm) with well-developed thorax (breast depth – 72.2 and 81.6, breast width – 46.4 and 54.2, chest area behind the shoulder blades – 191.0 and 201.9 cm). The average length of their corpus was 156.2 and 163.7, hips width – 51.7 and 58.8 and girth of the metacarpus – 18.1 and 19.1 cm.
 The connection between the exterior forms of body constitution and the indices of productivity of animal is especially opening with the use of index estimation of exterior. The usage of body constitution indices gives the opportunity objectively identify development of some parts, their changeability with age, productive and type differences, identify their connection with direction and the level of animals’ productivity in some household environment. The analysis of body constitution indices shows that heifers and full grown cows by the exterior peculiarities belongs to dairy type, were quite harmonious by the body constitution.
 The identifying of measurements of body parts of animals allows to compare their both individual and group peculiarities and to select the best dairy cows. That is why there is the necessity to learn changes of exterior and milk productivity of cows of Ukrainian Black-and-White dairy breed of different genotype. With the increase of Holstein heredity share in the genotype of animals of Ukrainian Black-and-White increased the investigated body measurements (except – breast width and girth metacarpus).
 The heifers had significant (P < 0.05–0.001) decrease in boniness indices, extension, thoracic, hips and chest, chest width and increase of indices of blockiness, sex and conventional corpus girth after the saturation of their Holstein genotype (I). There is a similar tendency of change of body structure indices was also observed in cows, but these changes were mainly unreliable.
 The strength of impact of genotype on the measurements and indices of body structure of both heifers and grown cows was negligible. The heifers’ conditional share of Holstein heredity had the most significant impact on measurements at withers (6.0%) and breast depth (3.6%), and cows – on measurements of oblique corpus length (5.8%), breast girth behind shoulder blades (4.9%) and height at the withers (4.2%) at 0.001 in all cases. The genotype had the most significant influence on bone indices (5.8%), sex (4.0%), breast (3.8%) and hips and breast (3.6%) in heifers’ case, and in full-grown cows’ case – on indexes of conditional volume (II) (5.6%), bones (4.3%) and conditional corpus (I) (3.2%).