Ancient Rulers Research Articles

Burden of proof: The erosion of and ancient rule

The ancient rule of the burden of proof contained in Article 2697 of the Italian Civil Code has experienced a significant erosion in recent years due to case law. The judge often creates presumptions and distributes the burden by asking the party that has the greatest possibility or facility to provide evidence. The rule of the burden of proof, moreover, was traditionally understood to mean that the burdened party had to provide full evidence, only in such cases the burden could be considered to have been met. But even this rule, in many areas, is no longer respected, as case law uses quite different standards of proof, even settling for the so-called prevailing probability. Lastly, a further erosion factor is related to the increasingly frequent use of court-appointed expert witnesses to provide the judge with elements useful for the decision, so that the reference to the party responsible for providing the evidence is disregarded.

The history of archives in Central Asia: ancient times

The article devoted studies of the documents on the history of the archives in Central Asia on the basis of archeological researches having been conducted in Central Asia over the last decades. Until now there have not been conducted practical complex studies of Central Asian archives of ancient times. On the basis of certain facts this following article has described the life experiences of ancient people who lived in the territory of current Uzbekistan and indicated the process of preserving documents and transferring data from generation to generation in the form of rock paintings and archival documents-libraries. These references indicate to the existence of ancient scripts in Khorezm. On the basis of scientific studies of the scientists it can be concluded that the elements of scripts discovered on the ancient ceramic handcrafts may be considered as the samples of early economic archieves found in the territory of present Uzbekistan. In the period of Akhamanids in Iran and in Central Asia cuneiform was widespread and in the whole territory of the empire Aramaic script wasn’t the only language of paperwork. As it has been indicated in the article, according to its geographic scope, the Bactrian language took the second place after the Sogd language which was widely used in the territory extending from India to Eastern Turkestan. The fact that two biggest empires as Kushanids and Ephtalits and then also the state of Takhirids utilised this script demonstrates the significance of the ancient Bactrian language in the lives of ancient nations. This paper also shows the similar attributes of the Bactrian language used in making negotiations of Surkh-Kutal, Rabotak with the scripts used in the samples of the letters in the documents from the library of Ashurbanipal and with the Het script in which the texts of the anthems, national communal decisions and religious messages were inscribed on the rocks. There are also some evidences proving the existence of particular archives in the residences of ancient rulers of Central Asia in such places as Toprak Kala (Khorezm), and in the mount of Mug’ (Devashtich archives). Particularly in royal archives there was a systematic archival work and such materials as leather and wood were widely used to fix the data. Such documents as personal letters, diplomatic correspondence, contracts and economical records were kept in this period. It also should be noted that paperwork was far more enhanced in this epoch.

Sejarah Maritim di Nusantara (Abad VII-XVI): Interkoneksi Kerajaan Sriwijaya, Majapahit, dan Demak

Archipelago, the main theme of this article, is a term for a region known as Southeast Asia today, especially the countries with similar historical events about ancient rulers, such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, and others. Thus, the writing of this article was directed at reviewing material related to the existence of rulers, especially those engaged in the maritime field in the archipelago, with a focus on discussion on three subjects, including Sriwijaya, Majapahit and Demak, and was selected on the basis of similarities in historical events. The method used was descriptive analysis through books and other written materials, such as journal articles and seminar proceedings. Then, a written description of the reading and an unwritten description of the material in the form of photos/pictures were added. Lastly, the analysis was carried out using the concept of “Total History” proposed by Fernand Braudel. In this concept, there were three historical facts in one period, namely events, conjuncture, and structure. The findings of this article explained the development of the three maritime rulers of the archipelago, including the Srivijaya Kingdom (VII-XIII centuries), Majapahit Kingdom (XIII-XV centuries), and Demak Kingdom (XV-XVI centuries), which referred to the concept as an internal event empire since its inception, heyday, and decline. In addition, the interconnection of the three kingdoms was the existence of the side of the descendants of the previous kings and the enthusiasm for building the civilization of the archipelago, which was passed on to the rulers afterward through strengthening in the maritime sector.

Institutional Capital, Ancestral Hall, and the Reshaping of Ancient Rule: an Empirical Analysis of the New Energy of Chinese Heritage Elements in Rural Revitalization

Institutional Capital, Ancestral Hall, and the Reshaping of Ancient Rule: an Empirical Analysis of the New Energy of Chinese Heritage Elements in Rural Revitalization

Glorious pasts of forest dwellers: Memories of land in the ex-zamindari of Borasambar, Central Provinces, 1861–1905

AbstractThis article discusses the shifts in rights over land of Binjhal Adivasi people in the wake of colonial rule in the ex-zamindari of Borasambar, located in the British Central Provinces in the eventful period from 1860–1926. Oral narratives and documents preserved by Binjhal villagers juxtaposed with archived records of military expeditions, village surveys, administrative letters, and land settlement reports reveal how Binjhal ancestors lost titled land and offices of headmanship, which, over time, impoverished and diminished them in the rural hierarchy. The research finds that the codification of selective custom as legal rights accommodated colonial land policies to promote social change and agricultural improvement. Environmental histories document how nineteenth-century forest enclosures and agrarian order brought Adivasi areas within state control. Revisionist research highlights historically contingent outcomes of colonial rule. The Adivasi pasts in this article reveal how the interpretations of legal culture by local actors, who transacted with the administration, led to variable outcomes for a pre-colonial land-controlling group. By examining the truth claims in fragments of Binjhal voices and narratives about them, in village memories and archives, through a threefold examination of the past—pragmatic, habitual, and episodic—this article explores the historicity of Adivasi land memories. Here, stories of past glory lead to claims of legal entitlements rather than restitution of ancient rule, and injustices are described in the idiom of disrupted kinship and transgressions of women, illuminating the varied routes through which groups residing in relatively non-agrarian upland habitats became Adivasi.

Culture and Bilateral Diplomacy: A Study of Nigeria-Saudi Relations

Culture has always been a central component of international relations. From the reciprocal exchange of gifts and goodwill by ancient rulers to modern-day cultural exchanges, culture has been used as a way for leaders and countries to build lasting relationships. It influences how people within a country interact with each other, it guides decision making, values, thinking patterns and behaviour. This is true of Nigeria-Saudi bilateral relation as culture occupies a central position in their relations. This paper relied on diplomatic and bureaucratic correspondences, Newspaper publications and existing literature on Nigeria-Saudi relations, to examine from a historical perspective, the role of culture in the relations between Nigeria and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. It evaluated the changing nature, character and escalating dynamics of these relations. The study identified issues and areas of cooperation that can provide the basis for sustained Nigeria-Saudi Arabia relations. The paper concluded that cultural events involving two or more states can draw them closer diplomatically; a further proof of the relevance of the cultural factor to the understanding of the foreign policies of states. Hence it showed the inadequacies of International Relations theories to capture the realities of third world international relations.

<가락국기> ‘굴봉정촬토(掘峯頂撮土)’의 장례의례적 성격 고찰

This study examines the nature of the funeral rites of “Gulbongjeong󰠀chwalto” presented in the story “Garakgukgi” from the Samgukeusa. “Garakgukgi” is the mythical story of the birth of the ‘Su-ro’. Since myths are transmitted along with rituals, the character and meaning of the myths of aqueducts can be understood concretely only when the ritualistic aspects appearing in the myths of aqueducts are clearly identified. In “Garakgukgi,” the portion pertaining to the birth of “Su-ro” is subdivided into two parts: before and after the birth of Su-ro. The birth of Su-ro signifies the emergence of a new king, while simultaneously signifying the death of the former ruler. In other words, the birth of Su-ro in “Garakgukgi”contains two events: the rite for the birth of a new king and the funeral rites of the former ruler. This is also illustrated through the placement of the tomb of the ancient ruler, “Jiseokmyo,” above that of “Gujibong,” and the rite for the birth of a Su-ro being performed on Gujibong. In this study, folklore materials handed down until today were used to investigate the characteristics of the funeral rites of “Gulbongjeongchwalto.” First, we examined the relationship between the custom of “Jejeol” and “Gulbongjeongchwalto” among the funeral methods handed down in Jeju Island today. Second, we discovered the tradition of singing and dancing to pray for the birth of a new life in the funeral process through the “Dasiraegi”, a funeral method in Jindo where the ancient funeral method called “double funeral” is handed down. “Gulbongjeongchwalto” and “Gujiga” performances consist of praying for the birth of descendants and the transmission of sacredness, raising the possibility that it would be passed down to future generations.

The Sword of Damocles: Family Presence and Extracorporeal Life Support During The COVID-19 Pandemic and Beyond.

During Ontario’s busiest surge of COVID-19 (coronavirus disease) to date, our Pediatric ICU at the Hospital for Sick Children (normally an entirely pediatric referral centre) admitted adult patients under our care. Our extracorporeal life support (ECLS) program quickly adapted to this new reality—we admitted adults previously cannulated to ECLS and cannulated a number of adult patients, while maintaining our usual pediatric ECLS cases. The following reflections stem from the family presence restrictions in place due to COVID-19, in particular the clarity these constraints have lent to our role in supporting families as they navigate the unique tension between life and death that is ECLS. Dionysius II, an ancient ruler of Syracuse, responded to a courtier’s flattery by having him rule in his stead for one day. That courtier, Damocles, eagerly embraced the opulence and power of his role but, looking up from his throne, noticed that Dionysius had placed a sword directly above his head—its handle was suspended from the ceiling by a single hair, to teach Damocles the danger inherent in the life of a ruler. Terrified, Damocles abandoned his newfound privileges and returned the crown to Dionysius. More than two millennia have passed, and we find ourselves struggling against the despotic rule of COVID-19, its viral structure even boasting its own corona, crown. Amidst the armamentarium of modern medicine, ECLS has affirmed its role as a last resort—veno-venous (V-V) ECLS, judiciously applied, has become a bridge to recovery1 (and in rare cases, lung transplantation2) with 90 day survival in the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization COVID-19 registry dashboard approaching 50%.3 When you place a patient on V-V ECLS after several hours of trying to coax gas exchange out of lungs which have become like stones, the team breathes a sigh of relief and, like Damocles surveying the gilt palace, basks in the glow of a better blood gas while the ECLS console hums with newfound hope in recovery. But like Damocles we all look up, sooner or later, and remember the sword that plagues our hopes and safety. Device failure, an intracranial bleed, an intrathoracic bleed, a gastrointestinal bleed, an opportunistic infection… these are kept at bay by a very thin thread. None of this is new to anyone who cares for patients supported on ECLS, yet we all forget at times to look up and ponder that sword. And more importantly, we struggle to help families maintain that awareness, to understand that when we say their loved one is stable on ECLS the latter two words represent a radical caveat to the first. The COVID-19 pandemic has served as an urgent reminder of the importance of ensuring families understand the inherently tenuous nature of their loved one’s path to recovery with ECLS. For those who cannot visit in person due to public health and infection control measures, it becomes imperative to use whatever tools are possible (including video platforms and language translation when necessary) to highlight the absolute dependence—of their spouse or partner, their parent, or their child or sibling—upon a machine that, at great risk, pumps blood in and out of their body through an oxygenator membrane. The myriad risks must be clear and ever present. For those who can visit, during and beyond COVID-19, we must advocate for frequent visits, daily if possible, consistent with the accompaniment that we would wish for any patient whose life hangs in the balance. COVID-19 has brought a tragic loss of life throughout the world, with the concomitant tragedy and trauma of countless patients who have borne suffering and died unaccompanied. Where public health authorities and infection control policies give us an inch we must take a mile and bring families to the bedside of patients supported on ECLS. When each day might see the sword of Damocles descend, it behooves us to make that sword visible and, more importantly, to make patients and families visible to one another as best we can. The challenge of supporting families through a patient’s prolonged dependence upon a terrifyingly high-risk therapy is a relatively novel challenge that will become more common in the years ahead, given the ever-expanding role of ECLS and increasingly versatile heart and organ-assist devices. How can we ensure that all parties glance with some regularity at the thin thread of survival, while also providing reassurance and encouraging some adaptation to a new normal that will never be normal? COVID-19 has served to highlight the fragile nature of communication in healthcare, and while the pandemic’s reign may end before long, we are now better equipped than ever before to engage patients and families in the day-to-day journey that is ECLS. Acknowledgment We wish to acknowledge the dedication of our extracorporeal life support (ECLS) team during our unprecedented role in treating adult patients with COVID-19 in our Pediatric ICU.

Impact factor of British rule in Establishing Madras High Court

This study is aimed at tracing the history, origin, and evolutions of the Chennai High Court. The major purpose of this study is framed to exploring emergence of the India’s judiciary systems which emerged during which period would be analyzed. There were questions at the hearts of the ancient rulers as well as British Governments that political system alone is able to rule the entire country’s political, economical, cultural, educational, social, and agricultural issues and needs were ended at suspicions. Regarding these issues after some year gap rulers itself with common people suggestion and public opinion the judiciary systems were established to stand as a neutral problem resolving and needs arranging mechanisms between governments and its protocols. Because in those time rulers are found with exploitative and corrupted characters their characters created unbelief and ambiguity among the people's hearts regarding how they will rule and treat people in a decent way. This situation of the people is forced them to create certain or some neutral and nonpolitical problem resolving and grievance redressed forum that forum is Judiciary, was created by the people for their safety, welfare, and peaceful life in the society. So, judiciary born to provide safety, security, Right of justice, and yield privileges then give to people when it’s neglected by the government or private.

Drug-fuelled parties helped ancient Andean rulers to hold power

Drug-fuelled parties helped ancient Andean rulers to hold power

‘Doctrine Of Doli Incapax’ (Crime Committed By Minor And Their Rehabilitation)

In the present scenario, crime is increasing day by day in our society and it’s affected the upcoming generation and also affected the ideology of youth and especially of children aged between 7 to 16 years old. Further the term ‘doli incapx’ it’s a Latin language word also an obscure doctrine of ancient origin that provides a presumption that children over the age of criminal responsibility but under a certain age are incapable to commit a crime or offense, even an age category is defined under Indian penal Code in which a child up to the limit of age is incapable to commit any crime if done so then he will be exempted from the penalty for that crime committed by him and our Indian Penal law also further define a category of children which can commit a crime or has knowledge of criminal activity or having the capability to commit a crime that also known as ‘doli capax’ and there is also special category and procedure to tried that children under special law and they also kept under separate facility or observation during the trial and after the conviction.
 I think it is hard to regard this ancient rule about the capacity of a child between ten and fourteen as altogether satisfactory or suited to modern conditions. Nevertheless, it is clearly the law and we have to enforce it.
 ‘No civilized society’, says Professor Colin Howard in his book entitled Criminal Law, 4th ed. (1982), p 343, ‘regards children as accountable for their actions to the same extent as adults’.’... The wisdom of protecting young children against the full rigor of criminal law is beyond argument. The difficulty lies in determining when and under what circumstances that protection should be removed.

The Image of the Ancient Jewish Ruler and Autocratic Power During the Formation of Statehood (Based on the Materials of the Hebrew Bible)

The relevance of the study lies in the fact that the ancient texts of the Hebrew Bible largely anticipated the political and legal achievements of the last centuries. The Tanakh, additions and commentaries to it determine the direction of modern international humanitarian law, ways of forming state administration, lay the foundations of a system of checks and balances, a system of separation of powers, contain the foundations of the contractual theory of the origin of the state by concluding an agreement between the people and the king. The purpose of this study is to analyze the ancient texts of the Hebrew Bible and update the obtained data in modern political and managerial relations. Some texts of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh), authoritative commentaries on them and the results of research by domestic and foreign scientists were used as materials for the study. The research methods were comparison, analysis of documents, and the system method. The conducted research concluded that doubts about the historicity and practical reliability of the texts of the Hebrew Bible are not able to affect the indisputable value of the material contained in it. Even if the events described have never taken place in history, the views expressed in the Bible themselves should be recognized as far ahead of their time and of value for modern political science. The Hebrew Bible defines the representative of the autocratic power (the king) as the first among equals. This applies to rights, duties, and responsibilities. It is this postulate that should be embedded in the modern political and managerial system, in which there is always a manager and performers. And only continuous work (primarily on oneself), self-improvement, as the Hebrew Bible bequeathed, should become the criterion for selecting a leader, and not any preferences.

Architectonics of the "Dance of The Seven Veils "From Richard Strauss's Opera "Salome" Through the Prism of Historical Reconstruction

The phenomenon of the popularity of R. Strauss's opera "Salome" is explained through the prism of a new paradigm of performing arts, which is due to the rethinking of works of the modern era in the context of postmodern aesthetics. A comprehensive intersectional integrated analysis of musicological, iconographic, culturological, theological, social, psychological and physiological components of the work has been carried out. The methodology of key aspects of the research is determined: features of musical drama — genre-stylistic; content of ancient entertainments —historical and stylistic reconstruction; creation of psychological portraits of characters — system analysis; the concept of dance in opera is an interpretive method. The libretto of the opera is compared with O. Wilde's drama highlighting differences in the image of the main character: in the drama — two "Salome lines", in the libretto — three with the addition of "Dance of the Seven Veils" as an important scene in the conflict, personifying the story of the tragic love of a young princess. The peculiarities of the musical drama of the dance scene in the opera are studied, two opposing points of view on its role and place in the score of the work, the thoughts of the composer R. Strauss on this subject are outlined. The nature of dance entertainment at the courts of ancient rulers, the specifics of the performance of dances "Almeh" and "Ghawazi", which could serve as a prototype of the "Dance of the Seven Veils" performed by princess Salome is described in the article. The stylistics of the "Almeh" dances included a demonstration of highly artistic eroticism, and the "Ghawazi" dances a Bacchic seduction. In the dance scene, it is possible to combine these opposite patterns in the context to solve the musical drama of the work. The psychological and physiological features of Salome's age are analyzed, her characteristic features are explained, which could elucidate the logic of the young princess's actions. Psychological portraits of Salome, Jochanaan, Herodes and Herodias have been made, which directly or indirectly influence the specifics of the interpretation of the dance scene. The key aspects of the architectonics of the specified scene, the content of its parts, the correspondence of the nature of the dance performance to their content are determined, which determines the scientific novelty of the research. The results of the research are compared with modern incarnations of the dance scene in the opera, their partial correspondence is revealed in four out of five parts of dance drama, except for the development of the action. In the latter, there is a loss of tempo due to the mismatch between the gradual growth and decline of the musical drama of the dance scene with its choreographic embodiment. The necessity of using the concept of different branches of knowledge to establish a holistic picture of events in this scene is proved. Prospects for research of the chosen issues through the prism of the latest achievements in the field of musical theater, the attraction of modern interpretations to neo-syncretism are predicted.

On the English Translation of Jian’ai by Late Qing Missionary-Sinologists

Abstract With an increasing volume of research being conducted on the transmission of premodern Chinese thought in the Western world, a plethora of studies have been published on the English translation of the ancient text Mozi, primarily through the lens of cross-cultural translation studies. Discussions on how the concept of jian’ai – often rendered as “universal love” – should be expressed in English have also taken place in this framework, while the topic has rarely been examined hermeneutically or with reference to histories of knowledge transfer, intellectuals, or scholarship. This article discusses the translation of jian’ai into English by the missionary-sinologists Joseph Edkins and James Legge during the mid-to-late 1800s. It points out that, while both scholars used the term “universal” to translate the concept, they differed on whether “equal” could be used. The author also demonstrates how differences in translation can signify differences in thinking. Using the “unit of thought” of hermeneutics as a methodology to study the translators’ conception of jian’ai via a comparison of common structural levels, a case can be made that both of them used the criticism by Mengzi of Mozi as a kind of “situational construction”. However, in terms of “situational processing”, Edkin’s demonstrated the necessity and equality of jian’ai by quoting the words of ancient sages and wise rulers just as Mozi did, while Legge focused on the “Teng Wen Gong I” chapter of the Mengzi, arguing that the idea of “equality” was not espoused by Mozi himself but rather his later followers. From the perspective of “situational fusion”, Edkins pointed out that, while jian’ai is similar in form to the love of Christ, it in fact shares more similarities with utilitarianism. By contrast, Legge believed that jian’ai was more in line with the thought of Confucius, while he also discussed the similarities and differences between jian’ai and the love of Christ. The differing understandings of jian’ai arrived at by these two scholars demonstrates that missionaries sent to China after the mid-nineteenth century underwent a transition from amateur to professional sinologists. Moreover, by examining how Mohism was introduced to the West in modern times, it can be shown how Legge’s interpretation of jian’ai coined a longstanding translated name for the concept.

Өзге тілді мектептерде оқушының тілін дамытуда мақал-мәтелдерді қолдану тәжірибесі

Proverbs are the oldest form of oral literature. This is a collection of experience carefully preserved by our people for centuries, the essence of their thoughts, a legacy passed on from father to son. Proverbs and sayings impress with artistic, figurative expressions. The quality of proverbs is determined by their eloquence, sharpness of thought, dexterity, depth. Proverbs teach a person to appreciate words, to distinguish between good and evil, to be kind, compassionate, sensitive to others, to appreciate the pearls of folk art. Proverbs and proverbs are a chronicle of the thoughts of generations and a practical encyclopedia of the spiritual life of the people. This is a genre depicting various spheres of public life in the form of artistic images depicting the early childhood of man and echoes of the voices of generations. Thanks to these qualities, the slender schedule, passed down from generation to generation and which became a powerful motto and an ancient rule of the workers, was always revered by the people as a sacred heritage. Proverbs have a complex system and a summary of generations and social and historical practices, the genealogy of wisdom and the practical encyclopedia of the spiritual life of people. This is a kind of genre that reflects in the form of an artistic image a diverse sphere of social life, introducing colors of a distant infant era into a person's life. Thanks to such qualities, which spread from generation to generation and became the ancient rule and slogan of the mighty labor of the working masses.

Критика Аристотелем принципа «подобное познается подобным» (комментарий к О душе II 5 416b 32 – 417a 20)

One of the principles underlying Aristotle’s theory of sense perception is that the sense faculty is potentially such as the sensible object is actually. On closer examination, this statement turns out to be a modernization of the ancient rule "like is known by like", shared by most of the early Greek philosophers, including Empedocles and Plato. The paper shows that though Aristotle criticizes this principle in his treatise On the Soul, he doesn’t really abandon it. On the contrary, he retains it for his own theory of sense perception while using the notions of the possible and the actual. The paper is written in the form of a line-by-line commentary to De anima II 5 416b 32–417a 20, where Aristotle reproaches his predecessors for the inconsistency and contradictions of their theories; shows that the “like is known by like” principle entails certain difficulties, and solves these difficulties by introducing his own theory of being moved and acted upon, according to which the patient is in a sense unlike the agent and in a sense like it.

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF NUMISMATIC EVIDENCES ASSOCIATED TO MINING ACTIVITIES IN PARTHIAN AND SELEUCID DYNASTIES

Knowledge of the number and location of mines of the ancient periods has been the subject of common research between archaeologists and archaeo-mineralogists. The scientific significance of the subject becomes apparent when the direct relation between the power of the ancient rulers and number of the mines they owned is perceived. The gold and silver mines, like today, were accounted as the main economic credit and backing of the ancient states. Although mixing silver with other metals was used to produce diverse metal artefacts, silver on its own was most popular for minting coins. Since coin was a symbol of the sovereignty of rulers and an indicator of the economic power of ancient civilizations, silver mining was probably one of the main activities of the ancient craftsmen. The main aim of this research is to investigate the conditions surrounding, and the techniques used for, extraction of silver from different mines during the reign of Alexander of Macedon, Seleucid rulers (336-129 BC), and Parthian kings (247 BC-224 AD). The kings, whose coins are studied in this research, ruled in Iran from 4 th -1 st BC. This research is focused on the laboratory results obtained from XRF tests on 24 coins belonging to the mentioned kings. The analysis of the results revealed that despite the advanced technology used for recovering silver from zinc and lead mines in the Seleucid era, the Parthian craftsmen were not highly skilled in this field. In other words, the silver recovery technology was more advanced in the Seleucid era than the Parthian period.

The fly-net in Judith: Anglo-Saxon perceptions of an ancient Assyrian ruler

ABSTRACT This article examines the fly-net around Holofernes’ bed in Judith to argue that the Old English poet refashions his source material to imagine the atmosphere of political intrigue at the centre of the Assyrian ruler’s power. Moreover, because of the fly-net, Judith’s decapitation of the ruler takes on new meaning when compared with the beheading in the Vulgate source.

Relikti prvobitnog poimanja pravičnosti, pravde i prava u prvim državama Starog veka - jedan pravno-antropološki pogled

All archaic societies were founded on the principles of equality and solidarity. Another common trait were the mechanisms for regulating social behaviour, as they were crucial for a society's survival. In such types of societies, archaic fairness existed. It manifested itself through egalitarianism, solidarity, but also through the static and conservative elements and was based on the customs which were binding on all the members of the society. When archaic societies became layered and started to expand and mix with other communities, the initial cohesion, security and archaic righteousness slowly started to disappear and instead, the concept of justice appeared. Unfortunately, that caused an irreversible damage to the balance that once existed as the ideal state in the archaic societies. The invention of the writing system and the creation of the first states eventually enabled the Cuneiform Law to develop and as the result, the first law codes of the humanity came to life. The first states and their rulers found themselves at the crossroads between "the old" and "the new". The law was heavily shaped by the nobility, so all of the privileges were created explicitly for the nobles, while the poor were yearning for the past times which were more kind to them. The new law slowly started to suppress the old customs. The ancient rulers, at least instinctively, if not consciously, recognised the need for a balance which would guarantee order and peace in the state. In Egypt, where the archaic elements survived the longest, the echoes of archaic societies and ancient beliefs could be found in the principle of Ma'at, the weighing of souls and the Book of the dead. The creators of Cuneiform Law also found their ways and strategies to present themselves as just and caring rulers. The evidence for that can be found especially in the provisions of the law. Whether they are referring to their own achievements and merits, or offering protection and care to the vulnerable members of the society, or revoking privileges of the nobles for the sake of the greater good, or turning back to the tradition, or "buddying up" with the gods, or determining measures and compensation amounts, they are, above all, trying to be exemplary rulers to their subjects by putting the rule of law first.

A Historical Overview of Khat Production in Ethiopia

This paper tries to study the history of Khat production and expansion in Ethiopia. Khat has been consumed in Ethiopia for long period of time. Some sources moreover, mention Ethiopia as the origin of Khat production and the country that takes the lion share of Khat export to the rest of the world currently. The above mentioned notion has triggered the researcher to look at the history of this herbal and its production, consumption and contemporary use in Ethiopia. Different qualitative data collection techniques have been employed to get in to the bottom of the abovementioned topic. Here the researcher has conducted interview with elders who are believed to narrate the history of Khat, farmers who primary production has been Khat and consumers who use to consume Khat for long period of time. Moreover, secondary source of data like books, articles and term papers are also used to grasp the necessary information. After extensive data collection scheme and analysis, the researcher has reached into a conclusion that ancient Ethiopian rulers have been presented Khat as a gift for leaders of the south Arabia and this led the researcher to conclude that Ethiopia is one of the origin places of Khat if not the only country. Ethiopia is still the biggest Khat producing country with immense varieties that are mentioned inside this paper. Ethiopia could also be mentioned as the country where Khat is consumed immensely.