Ancient Irrigation Systems Research Articles

Deep learning, irrigation enhancement, and agricultural economics for ensuring food security in emerging economies

This paper delves into the critical issues of individual health, environmental health, and public health, which are all interconnected in the complex web of food security in emerging countries. Leveraging data from the top 10 countries with the lowest climate index values according to the Numbeo ranking, this article introduces a groundbreaking deep learning algorithm. This algorithm has the potential to revolutionize agricultural productivity and food security in the face of climate change, filling the gap in research on deep learning in agriculture. By enabling intelligent management, this algorithm could boost yields in agriculture, rendering it less dependent on climatic factors and ensuring the effectiveness of digital modernization. Furthermore, we explore the promising benefits of restoring ancient irrigation systems to elevate productivity levels. Our study provides definitive insights into deep learning techniques for yield prediction and productivity enhancement, offering a beacon of hope for the future of food security in emerging economies.

Valuing ecosystem services from restoring ancient irrigation systems: An application comparing labor vs. monetary payments for choice experiments

AbstractThe use of stated preference methods with monetary payments in developing countries can be problematic as barter and paying with labor are common in rural areas. In response, a growing number of stated preference studies explore using monetary and nonmonetary payment options. We contribute to this literature by exploring the impact of monetary vs. labor payment options on values elicited from choice experiment studies conducted in rural developing country settings. We also contribute to the literature by comparing data-gathering methods, specifically individual surveys vs. group information sessions. Our application is the restoration of an ancient irrigation system known as cascading tank systems in Sri Lanka. We conduct a choice experiment to understand the willingness to pay/willingness to contribute of rural households to restore these irrigation systems. We find that in the individual survey setting, there are no significant differences between monetary and labor payments. We also find that there is no difference between the group and individual survey settings for the monetary payment treatment. For the labor payment treatment, the group setting results in a positive payment coefficient for the labor payment attribute. This highlights that labor payments should be used cautiously in group evaluation settings.

Restoring ancient irrigation systems for sustainable agro-ecosystems development: Reflections on the special issue

Humans have relied on agriculture to feed their communities for thousands of years. Irrigation is practiced in many different forms over the years in countries all over the world. Although modern irrigation systems have been developed, and are in use in many countries, ancient irrigation systems (AISs) have also played a major role in sustaining food production, especially in smallholder farming in least developed and developing countries. The editorial team of Agricultural Systems put out a call for a special issue on restoring AISs for sustainable agro-ecosystems development to capture ancient marvels of traditional irrigation technology across the world.The objectives of this special issue were to: (i) understand and analyse the hydrological and socio-economic networks anchored by AISs; (ii) explain the nature and sustainability of management of these systems in relation to local agro-ecosystems; (iii) analyse the implications of the AISs for land, soil and water quality, and agro-ecosystem services; (iv) qualitative and quantitative analysis of AISs, including bio-physical and bio-economic modelling of these systems; and (v) assess the feasibility of alternative technological, institutional and management strategies to enhance the productivity, profitability, and environmental sustainability of the systems. The overall goal of the special issue was to develop a useful repository for this information as well as to use the journal's international reach to share this information with the agricultural systems research community and journal readership. This paper provides reflections of papers published in the special issue.The special issue resulted in twelve high quality original research articles and one review article from Asia, Africa and Europe. The findings from various papers revealed that the AISs have been degraded due to human interventions or the anthropogenic activities across the world. Various papers emphasized that as a corrective measure, there is a need for developing and implementing rehabilitation projects in these systems. Authors identified that appropriate policy interventions by the relevant authorities would be a major step towards such rehabilitation process. However, resetting the ecosystem structure of the AISs strictly towards their historical manifestation is neither required nor feasible in the present context as it would contradict the expectations of stakeholders from these systems.The knowledge generated through the special issue provides evidence-based information on various aspects of AISs. It helps aware governments, private sectors and development agencies for improved policy planning and decision making and for prioritizing the restoration, rehabilitation, and management of various AISs around the world.

Prospects of rehabilitation of ancient irrigation systems in India – A case study from coastal saline zone of West Bengal

Prospects of rehabilitation of ancient irrigation systems in India – A case study from coastal saline zone of West Bengal

A study on external pressures of an ancient irrigation cascade system in Sri Lanka

CONTEXTVillage Tank Cascade Systems (VTCSs), which are ancient irrigation systems in Sri Lanka have undergone various pressures over time including climate variability, population growth, land use changes and agricultural intensification. VTCSs have provided irrigation and vital ecosystem services for generations, while facing these pressures. As external pressures have increased drastically over the last century, it is worthwhile to investigate VTCS's current capacity to tolerate pressures exerted on them while sustaining their functions. OBJECTIVEThe objectives of this study were to (i) assess the pressures exerted on Mahakanumulla VTCS due to climate change, population growth, land use changes and agricultural practices, (ii) evaluate the impacts of the pressures on the system in terms of water quality and quantity. METHODSRainfall data from 1906 to 2020 were analyzed to identify the rainfall trends over the last century. Land use maps were developed for 1910, 1979, 2002 and 2018. To identify current farming practices, a questionnaire survey was carried out targeting 357 respondents followed by field investigations. Environmental impacts due to pressures on the system were evaluated using water quantity estimations and quality tests. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSPaddy extent has increased from 6.3% to 20.2% while the homestead extent has increased from 1.6% to 11.5% during the last century. The lands used for sustainable shifting cultivation have encroached with permanent agricultural lands and human settlements. The runoff coefficient rose from 0.29 to 0.45, indicating a high outflow of water during rains and limiting water retention within the system. This is an indication of increasing water scarcity in dry periods due to limited recharge capacity. Although the system continues to function without significant water quality deterioration, agricultural activities can cause threats in the future. Hence, the system needs immediate attention in the context of proper land use planning, farmer awareness and integrated nutrient management at the cascade level to minimize these pressures exerted upon the system. SIGNIFICANCEIdentifying and quantifying various pressures exerted on VTCSs is the fundamental step in setting management and mitigation plans. Project planners and policymakers need evidence-based information in this regard. Therefore, this study's findings and the research framework that may be extended to other VTCSs and similar systems are significant in creating a favorable policy environment and implementation programmes to reduce the risks the VTCSs are exposed to.

Contribution of British Colonial Rule to the Conservation and Maintenance of Ancient Irrigation Works in Sri Lanka

The earliest irrigation system in Sri Lanka dates back to the sixth century BC. It had reached its peak of development around the twelfth century AD. With the migration of civilization to the southwest, the arid zone was overgrown and destroyed by the abandonment of ancient irrigation industries. But many of the old irrigation industries are still active today as living heritage. This was due to the conservation and maintenance are done by the local rulers as well as the colonial rulers who ruled the country. The purpose of this research was to trace the contribution of the British colonial rulers who ruled the country for more than a century to the conservation and maintenance of the ancient irrigation industry. The research problem here is what kind of conservation and maintenance was done during the British colonial rule on the ancient irrigation system of Ceylon. Because this research is based on a qualitative approach, the methodology used in the case studies used the study of archival records and documents, direct observation, and the examination of physical archeological remains. The irrigation system, which was widespread throughout the dry zone plains, was initially protected by the people who built it and by the conservation and maintenance work done by the state machinery itself. Centuries after the collapse of civilization, ancient irrigation was rediscovered and identified, and proposals for conservation were made during British colonial rule. In addition, funding for the conservation of the irrigation industry and the implementation of small and large-scale irrigation conservation programs, as well as the formulation of laws, regulations, and institutions for conservation work, were important processes during the British colonial period.

Ancient irrigation systems in Asia and Africa: Typologies, degradation and ecosystem services

CONTEXTAncient irrigation systems (AISs) have been providing a multitude of ecosystem services to rural farming and urban communities in Asia and Africa, especially in arid and semi-arid climatic areas with low rainfall. Many AISs, however have now been degraded. A systematic analysis of AISs on their typologies, causes of degradation, and their ecosystem services is lacking. OBJECTIVEThe objective of this review was to synthesize the knowledge on AISs on their typologies, status and causes of degradation, ecosystem services and functions, and identify gaps in research in Asia and Africa. METHODA critical review of peer-reviewed journal papers, conference and workshop proceedings, book chapters, grey literature, and country reports was conducted. Qualitative and quantitative information from journal papers were used to conceptualize the typologies and analyze the status and causes of degradation, and ecosystems services and functions provided by the AISs. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONBased on the review, we classified AISs into three groups by source of irrigation water: Rainwater harvesting system (RHS) with small reservoirs, ground water based system, and floodwater based system. The RHSs, which used to receive reliable rainfall and managed by well cohesive social organizations for their maintenance and functioning in past, have now been silting due to extreme rainfall pattern and breakdown of the cohesive organizations in recent decades. In ground water based systems, indiscriminate development of deep tube wells causing siltation of channels has been a major challenge. In floodwater irrigation systems, irregular rainfall in the highlands and the breakage of irrigation structures by destructive floods were the main causes of degradation. Lack of maintenance and increased soil erosion, inadequate skilled manpower, and declining support from the government for repair and maintenance were the main causes of degradation of all AISs.The main ecosystem service provided by all AISs is water for agriculture. In tank- and pond-based systems, fish farming is also practiced. Tank irrigation systems provide various types of provisioning, regulatory, cultural and supporting services, especially in India and Sri Lanka. Ground water based systems provide water for domestic purposes and various cultural services. Floodwater based systems provide water for power generation and wildlife habitat maintenance and help in flood control. SIGNIFICANCEThe knowledge generated through the review provide evidence-based information, and help aware governments, private sectors and development agencies for improved policy planning and decision making, and prioritizing the restoration, rehabilitation, and management of various AISs.

Editorial Issue 2/2022: The Heritage of Water-Related Infrastructures and Governance

Editorial Issue 2/2022: The Heritage of Water-Related Infrastructures and Governance

Revisiting irrigation efficiency before restoring ancient irrigation canals in multi-functional, nature-based water systems

CONTEXTIn the Middle Ages, the Muslims introduced communal water management in the Iberian Peninsula. Some irrigation systems of medieval origin are still in operation in the mountainous areas of Southern Spain. Snowmelt runoff is diverted during spring from high-altitude streams into contoured recharge ditches that convey the water to areas of high infiltration (shallow aquifers). This regulates and delays discharge into the main river, from which downstream flow is diverted, during late spring and summer, to irrigation ditches that supply terraces and fields on river plains. The Busquístar irrigation ditch and its irrigation scheme comprise one of these ancient systems. OBJECTIVES1) To characterize the Busquístar system, its water source and regulation, its water users' association, its multi-functionality, and its quality as a nature-based solution for water security. 2) To review the irrigation efficiency concept applied to the restoration of ancient irrigation systems, taking into account their ecosystem services. METHODSi) Semi-structured interviews with stakeholders to evaluate irrigation system operation and perceptions of multi-functionality; ii) field surveys for description of the irrigation ditch and its riparian flora; iii) satellite imagery for quantifying riparian vegetation; iv) water balance for irrigation efficiency computation. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSCrop production is the main function of the Busquístar irrigation scheme but additional ecosystem services are creation of landscape and biodiversity. Eight riparian plant communities were distinguished along the irrigation ditch. The discharge measured at its head on 23 July and 3 September 2017 represented 14 and 50% of the mean river flow in July and September, respectively. The flow measured at the first bifurcation of the ditch was about half that at the head, revealing the proportion filtered along its 6470-m long conveyance reach. The remaining flow was then diverted to 4 branches along the 3140-m long distribution reach proportionally to the irrigable area in each branch. Return flows and irrigation efficiency were estimated for the two measuring dates considering riparian and crop evapotranspiration. The estimated efficiency was highly dependent on which water uses were considered beneficial and on the scale of analysis, field, entire system or watershed. SIGNIFICANCEThe study revealed the integrated approach behind the traditional water management in these ancient systems. The article proposes a review of the irrigation efficiency concept that allows reconciling the character of a nature-based solution with the current restoration of the system, responding to the needs of the emerging export horticulture in the area.

A Study of the Tax System Associated with the Ancient Irrigation System and the use of the Proceeds for Temple Purposes Revealed by the Source of the Epigraphy

This study is an epigraphy sourced inquiry into the taxation system associated with the ancient irrigation system of Sri Lanka and the use of that revenue for rural needs. Tank land is the most popular type of land that was donated for temples by royalty, nobles as well as common people. Its incomes have been used in an organized manner to fulfill the needs of the residents, to successfully fulfill religious functions, as well as for the restoration processes of the temple. The research problem here was whether the tank lands given for temples and their income were used for temple needs with proper management. The main objective of this study was to conduct a study on the tank lands offered for temples during the Rajarata kingdoms and their revenue management. To identify how Viharaya emerged as a property-owning organization, investigate the contribution and involvement of Bhikshu in the management of the revenue shares of a lake, investigate the legal provisions in the use of the revenue of the tank lands for temple needs, etc. was implemented as sub-objectives of this research. The research method used here is the historical research method. The conclusions of this research were reached by studying the data obtained in a comparative and analytical manner based on the information revealed by epigraphical sources, limiting to the Rajarata civilization stage. The conclusion reached here was that due to the taxes obtained from the tank lands made for the temples and those revenues were used with proper management to meet the needs of the residents, an orderly temple administration system had been built at the same time.

WATER SOURCES IN CYRENAICA IN THE GREEK AND ROMAN PERIODS. TECHNOLOGY AND USE

This study identifies the most important methods the Greeks and Romans used to solve water shortages and how they developed irrigation and agricultural systems attested by archaeological remains and classical writers. We can benefit from those methods in the modern era to develop agriculture and renew interest in agricultural products that the region was famous for, many of which have now disappeared. The researcher used a descriptive and analytical approach based on collecting information written by classical writers on water resources and agriculture in the region, and recent studies on the development of ancient irrigation systems. The researcher also conducted field studies in Cyrenaica to identify the most important sources of water in each region and the methods the inhabitants used to solve the water shortage problem.

History of the Syganak Irrigation

When studying medieval cities, along with the complex issues, including the structure, defense system, localization of cities according to written sources, identifying economic districts, is the study of the ancient irrigation system. Although the city of Syganak is mentioned in Arabic and Persian sources of the 10th century, we can find data on the irrigation system of the city in the work of the 16th century “Mikhman-name-iy” by Bukhara Fazlallah ibn Ruzbikhan. The waqf letters discovered by V.V. Bartold mention rivers near the city of Syganak and canals drawn from the Syrdarya. Data on the irrigation of Syganak are contained in the “Book of the Big Drawing”, “Drawing Book of Siberia” by S. Remezov. In Soviet times, E.I. Ageeva and G.I. Patsevich, V.N. Groshev drew attention to the issues of the irrigation system of Syganak. S. Zholdasbaev, who studied the city of Syganak for many years, paid special attention to the origin of the name of the canal Tuman aryk, derived from the Syr Darya. In this article, the authors drew attention to a controversial issue related to the location of the medieval city of Syganak. In some sources, the city is located on the right bank, in others – on the left bank of the Syrdarya River. Some researchers, relying on these sources, suggest that another city, Syganak, is mentioned in written sources. Our field studies have shown that the Syr Darya had several old channels in the vicinity of the city of Syganak. The discovery of these channels confirms that at one time the city was located on the left bank of the Syr Darya. The Sarysu and Shu rivers from Central Kazakhstan and Semirechye at the northwestern end of Karatau flowed into these old channels. Also, in the course of research along the ancient canals, several medieval cities and settlements of the cities of the Syr Darya were identified. The article provides information about ditches, derived from the Syr Darya, also provides data on the rivers originating in the southern part of Karatau, about their ancient names. The authors reveal that the toponymic names of Kyrash, Toktamys, Kelte-Shalkiya, Arystandy, Mynbulak found in vakuf charters have retained their names to this day.

Assessing Sustainability of an Ancient Irrigation System – Application of a Sustainability Assessment Index for Horivila-Palugaswewa Cascade System in Anuradhapura Sri Lanka

Assessing Sustainability of an Ancient Irrigation System – Application of a Sustainability Assessment Index for Horivila-Palugaswewa Cascade System in Anuradhapura Sri Lanka

Soil Sealing and Hydrological Changes during the Development of the University Campus of Elche (Spain).

The University Miguel Hernández of Elche was created in 1996 and its headquarters is located in the city of Elche. A new campus was developed where new buildings and infrastructures have been established for over 25 years in the north of the city. The university is growing, and the land cover/land use is changing, adapted to the new infrastructures. In fact, the landscape changed from a periurban agricultural area mixed with other activities into an urbanized area integrated into the city. The purpose of this work was to evaluate the progressive sealing of the soil and the consequences on the surface hydrology. The area is close to the Palmeral of Elche, a landscape of date palm groves with an ancient irrigation system, which is a World Heritage Cultural Landscape recognized by UNESCO. The evolution of the land occupation was analyzed based on the Aerial National Orthophotography Plan (PNOA). Soil sealing and the modifications of the hydrological ancient irrigation system were detected. Based on the results, proposals for improvement are made in order to implement green infrastructures and landscape recovery that can alleviate the possible negative effects of the soil sealing in the area occupied by the university.

Construction Method of Evaluation System of Water Conservancy engineering Heritage

At present, socialism with Chinese characteristics has entered a new era, and the reform and development of water conservancy is facing new situations, new tasks and new requirements. With the establishment of the list of “Heritage Irrigation Structures” in 2014, the ancient irrigation system in China has been gradually excavated, and the irrigation engineering heritage of our country has reached 23 items. The protection and display and utilization of ancient irrigation heritage is conducive to transforming the advantages of historical and cultural resources into social and economic advantages and promoting the development of local economy. Through the collection of literature and field research, this article deeply studies the formation and characteristics of water conservancy project heritage, analyzes the value composition of water conservancy project heritage, and summarizes and extracts the indexes of water conservancy project heritage value, and this paper points out the principles of selecting index items. In this paper, the index system is divided into target layer, criterion layer, supplementary criterion layer and index layer. The target layer is five values, the criterion layer is the specific classification of the target layer, the supplementary criterion layer is the corresponding supplement of the criterion layer, and the index layer is the quantification of the criterion layer.

Sustaining Abundance

A comparison of archaeological survey and ethnography with the Zoroastrian textual corpus reveals the cultural and economic dimensions of an ancient water management system in northern Persia (southern Iran). The results highlight how humanity’s destructive impact on nature is ubiquitous, yet not all impacts are equivalent. The explanation is partly cultural, as Sasanian (r. 208–641 CE) notions of the Divine River promoted particular types of engagements with local rivers that respected their innate character. For believers, Zoroastrian water rituals promoted material abundance, just as ancient irrigation systems prioritized smaller barrages that allowed the river to mow. In contrast, modern dams severely restrict the water’s mow, which degrades the quality of the water. Even though ancient irrigation systems achieved a similar scale to modern ones, they were ultimately more sustainable because they respected the river as an important entity in its own right.

From the history of ancient irrigation systems of jizzakh oasis

The article is about the history of ancient irrigation systems of Jizzakh oasis, in which this cultural region was studied by researchers in Upper Sangzor (with Nushkent capital), Middle Sangzor (with Harakana capital), Lower Sangzor (with Dizak capital of Feknon), rustok of Zaamin (Zaamin) with the main city), Ravotsoy (with the capital of Turtkultepa), Majrumsoy (with the capital of Majrumtepa), Khojamushkentsoy (with the central city rustok of Savat with Kultepa). Located in the central part of the Turan lands, in the north-western part of the state, which went down in history in the Middle Ages as Ustrushana, the Sangzor Valley is closely connected with the emergence of ancient agricultural culture, irrigation networks, waterworks and the development of irrigation. The state of Ustrushana has played an important role in the ancient and medieval history of the Turanian land, and its north-western region is the Jizzakh oasis. This article provides sufficient information about the ancient irrigation networks, cisterns, sewer structures and their significant aspects that have survived to the present day in the Jizzakh oasis.

Water, Geography, and Aksumite Civilization: The Southern Red Sea Archaeological Histories (SRSAH) Project Survey (2009–2016)

For at least four decades, archaeologists have identified irrigation as playing a potentially major role in the rise of Aksumite civilization. Based on a systematic survey covering the area between Aksum and Yeha (Ethiopia), Joseph Michels proposed that large-scale irrigation systems introduced from Southwest Arabia contributed to the rise of Yeha as a major center of Pre-Aksumite civilization. To evaluate spatial patterning of archaeological sites with respect to water availability, this paper reports on results from archaeological survey of a 100 km2 region surrounding Yeha conducted by the Southern Red Sea Archaeological Histories (SRSAH) Project from 2009 to 2016. The SRSAH Project recorded 84 sites dating from the Pre-Aksumite to the Post-Aksumite periods (c.800 BCE to 900 CE). No ancient irrigation systems were identified and results do not show a correlation between archaeological sites and water resources. This suggests that irrigation was less important than Michels contended and that rainfed agriculture, terraces, and small-scale irrigation comparable with practices evident in the region today were sufficient to sustain ancient populations.

Channels, terraces, pottery, and sediments – A comparison of past irrigation systems along a climatic transect in northern Jordan

This contribution compares the remains of irrigation systems along a climatic transect in northern Jordan: Gadara (today Umm Qeis) in the north-west, Abila (today Queilbeh) in the north, and Umm el-Jimal (ancient name unknown) in north-east Jordan. While Gadara and Abila were monumental ancient cities of the Decapolis city league, which are located in Mediterranean environments, Umm el-Jimal is a large urban site situated in the steppe. Rainfed agriculture is possible near Gadara/Umm Qeis and Abila/Queilbeh, but not at Umm el-Jimal. Our surveys of the hinterlands revealed evidence for runoff farming at Umm el-Jimal near some wadis, and at Abila/Queilbeh and Gadara/Umm Qeis near both springs and wadis. Contrary to our expectations, the extent of ancient irrigation near Umm el-Jimal appeared more limited and economically less important than at the two other sites. Although the steppe proved covered by an approximately 4 m deep loess cover, these fertile sediments were apparently utilized only to a limited degree for agriculture. This can be deduced from the petty amount of sediments that accumulated behind terrace walls, the small extent of the fields and from low concentrations of nutrients usually associated with manuring. The archaeological surface survey confirms this picture: in the steppe, widely spread pottery scatters were found only within the settlement and the necropolis. The sites to the west revealed larger and more sophisticated remains of irrigation systems, as well as higher concentrations of material culture scatters, which suggest far more intensive land use systems than in the east. The most extensive and sophisticated remains of irrigation canals were found on caliche crusts near Gadara/Umm Qeis. As these rocks are mostly bare of soil cover, they are well-suited to collect runoff and construct rock-cut canals to transport water. We conclude that the available water resources and the geology had the strongest influence on the construction of ancient irrigation systems in northern Jordan.

Reconstructing Ancient Hohokam Irrigation Systems in the Middle Gila River Valley, Arizona, United States of America

We explore the concept of scales to examine emerging irrigation realities, i.e., connecting more agents within larger spaces - relates to the complexity of irrigation systems. Modern hydraulic models allow the inclusion of emerging multi-scale issues over time, including social issues related to different spatial and temporal scales. We show that the time needed to manage irrigation efficiently relates to the size of a system. By reconstructing ancient Hohokam irrigation systems in Arizona, we identify how longer-term extension of spatial scales created management problems beyond the scope of available technology. This approach allows greater understanding of how stresses in daily irrigation management may have impacted longer-term societal stability.