Ancient Research Articles

Methanol Extract of Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Root and Its Active Ingredient, Puerarin, Induce Apoptosis in HeLa Cells and Attenuates Bacterial Vaginosis in Gardnerella vaginalis-Infected Mice

Pueraria lobata (Willd.) has been used as food since ancient times, and its roots have been used mainly as a traditional herbal medicine to treat various diseases in East Asia. Puerarin is one of the major active ingredients in the roots of P. lobata. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of the methanol extract of P. lobata roots (PRME) and puerarin on apoptosis in cervical cancer and inflammation-relieving effects in vaginitis. First, we prepared the PRME and confirmed the puerarin content of PRME through HPLC analysis. We performed a TUNEL assay, Hoechst 33342 staining, and western blotting using HeLa cells, a human cervical cancer cell line. Both the PRME and puerarin exhibited antiproliferative effects in HeLa cells by inducing apoptosis through the activation of the extrinsic death receptor and intrinsic mitochondrial pathways, thereby demonstrating their anticancer efficacy against human cervical cancer. Next, a mouse model of vaginitis induced by Gardnerella vaginalis (GV) infection was established by inoculating C57BL/6 mice with β-estradiol-3-benzoate and GV (1 × 108 CFU). Histological analysis and PCR confirmed that the administration of PRME or puerarin to GV-infected mice alleviated reproductive tract vaginitis symptoms. Additionally, we confirmed that PRME or puerarin treatment decreased myeloperoxidase activity and reduced inflammation by regulating cytokines through the secretion of inflammatory mediators in mouse vaginal tissue. These results demonstrate that PRME and puerarin can be used as potential adjuvants or therapeutic agents with anticancer and anti-inflammatory properties to inhibit the progression of human cervical cancer and alleviate vaginitis.

Evaluation of Litchi Honey Quality in Southern China

Honey is a sweet substance laboriously collected and crafted from nectar by bees, and since ancient times, it has been deeply cherished by humans for its unique flavor and nutritional value. Litchi honey stands out among various types of honey with its unique flavor and sweet taste, and it is particularly favored by consumers. In accordance with the testing methodologies specified in relevant Chinese national standards, we conducted an exhaustive analysis of the physicochemical properties of six litchi honey samples in Southern China. The results showed that the moisture content fell within a range of 17.18% to 22.7%, while the electrical conductivity remained below 0.28 mS/cm, and amylase activity surpassed 7.7 mL/(g·h). The fructose content varied from 36.5% to 39.6%, with glucose content ranging between 30.57% and 37.63%. The combined total of these two monosaccharides was found to be within the spectrum of 69.63% to 77.23%, and sucrose content was recorded between 0.59% and 1.15%. The F/G was between 1.05 and 1.28, the proportion of fructose in reducing sugars ranged from 51.28% to 56.22%, and the maltose content was between 1.09% and 1.51%. The HMF content was measured between 1.04 and 3.49 mg/kg. Moreover, the presence of C-4 plant sugars was absent in all tested honey samples. These results definitively demonstrate that the physicochemical attributes of all litchi honey samples align with the standards set forth by Chinese national regulations and international authorities such as CODEX. During our in-depth examination of volatile constituents, we identified 26 common compounds, with trans-linalool oxide, linalool, lilac aldehyde B, lilac aldehyde D, α-terpineol, and cedrol emerging as pivotal in crafting the unique flavor and aroma profile of litchi honey. Additionally, the detection of methyl cyclosiloxane in litchi honey has garnered our attention, necessitating a comprehensive investigation into the honey production process. In conclusion, this study not only establishes a robust scientific basis for the quality assurance and product development of litchi honey but also provides valuable reference information for consumers in their selection of honey products.

Susceptibility profile and associated factors of urinary tract infections among women with established preterm labor delivering at a tertiary teaching hospital in Eastern Uganda: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundUrinary tract infections have been recognized as a significant health issue since ancient times, but they are particularly concerning during pregnancy due to their potential to cause severe complications like preterm labor and low birth weight leading to significant neonatal morbidity and mortality. This study aimed to determine the prevalence, antibiotic susceptibility and factors associated with urinary tract infections among women with established preterm labor at Jinja Regional Referral Hospital.MethodsThis was a hospital-based cross-sectional study carried out from 1st January 2024 to 30th April 2024. Using a consecutive sampling method, 385 pregnant women were enrolled until the desired sample size was reached. Data was collected via pretested questionnaires, and antibiotic susceptibility patterns were determined via urine culture and sensitivity. Data was analysed using STATA Version 14.2. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were used to determine association between the dependent and independent variables, with P < 0.05 as the level of significance at 95% confidence interval. The results were presented in pie charts, bar graphs and tables.ResultsThe prevalence of urinary tract infection was 114 (29.6%). The effectiveness of antibiotics against common Urinary tract Infection (UTI) pathogens varied significantly. E. coli was the most frequently isolated organism in UTIs, accounting for 42.98% of the cases followed by Enterococcus at 24.56%. Ceftriaxone was the most effective agent overall, with 81% of the pathogens showing susceptibility, followed by cefixime (78%) and co-amoxiclav (73%). Nitrofurantoin (64%) and cefuroxime (66%) had moderate effectiveness, whereas ampicillin (50%) was less effective. Azithromycin (34%) and erythromycin (28%) were the least effective. No formal education, being unemployed, monthly income less than 500,000 Ugandan Shillings, a history of urinary tract infection, Parity of one or more, a gestational age ≥ 26 weeks and diabetes (aOR = 8.00; 95% CI = [1.75–36.48]; P = 0.007), (aOR = 2.72; 95% CI = [1.38–5.23]; P = 0.003), (aOR = 2.55; 95% CI = [1.29–5.16]; P = 0.007), (aOR = 4.60; 95% CI = [2.64–8.25]; P < 0.001), (aOR = 1.90; 95% CI = [1.07–3.45]; P = 0.028), (aOR = 2.41; 95% CI = [1.17–4.92]; P = 0.017), (aOR = 3.11; 95% CI = [1.33–7.12]; P = 0.009), respectively, were significantly associated with urinary tract infection.ConclusionsIn this study, the prevalence of urinary tract infection was high compared with the worldwide prevalence. The majority of the isolates were susceptible to ceftriaxone, followed by co-amoxiclav, cefixime, nitrofurantoin, ampicillin, azithromycin and erythromycin. Primary or no formal education, monthly income ≤ 500,000Ugandan shillings, history of urinary tract infections, gestational age ≥ 26 weeks and diabetes were significantly associated with urinary tract infection.

Iron Swords and Ancient Echoes: Ancient Jewish History in the Israeli Far‐Right Rhetoric for Unity After October 7

ABSTRACTThis study provides a comprehensive analysis of the rhetorical strategies and narrative techniques employed by Israeli far‐right political figures during the early months of the Iron Swords War (October–December 2023) in Gaza. Utilising a qualitative discourse analysis approach, the research focuses on televised speeches and public statements made by key far‐right figures within Netanyahu's coalition, amidst the crisis following the October 7 attacks and the contentious jurisdictional reforms. These narratives served as a pivotal tool for political consolidation and public persuasion. Central to this analysis are concepts that elucidate how historical narratives are employed to shape collective identity and behaviour. The study reveals that, in response to accusations against Netanyahu's coalition for failures related to the events of October 7, there was a strategic emphasis on fostering national unity. This was achieved by invoking ancient Jewish historical narratives and symbols, with the aim of transcending religious and political divides and instilling a sense of shared heritage and purpose. The findings suggest that these rhetorical strategies were not only a response to the immediate crisis but also a critical tool for consolidating power and bolstering the coalition's legitimacy. The study contributes to the understanding of political discourse in times of national crisis, highlighting the role of historical narratives in shaping national identity and the dynamics of power within contemporary Israeli politics.

Reconsideration of Forms of Residence in Japan’s Ancient Kingship by the title derived from the abode

The emperor is a symbolic figure in Japan and the imperial family is key to tradition and identity. By exploring the history of the Japanese imperial system it is possible to more deeply understand contemporary society. Associate Professor Midori Endo, Humanities Division, Faculty of Core Research at Ochanomizu University, Japan, is interested in how the past impacts the present. She specialises in Japanese ancient history, with a particular focus on the ancient Japanese imperial system and its lasting influence on culture. She is also interested in social structures, including changes in the status of women in Japanese society. She wants to shed light on the creation of the imperial system’s involvement in the decline of women’’s political and social status after the 9th century. She is investigating the roles of women around the emperor and how these changed. In one recent study, she looked at the characteristics of Japan’s ancient rulership structure based on the residential patterns of ancient Japanese emperors and their families, focusing on words derived from residences such as ‘East Palace’, ‘Middle Palace’; and ‘Back Palace’, and carried out a comparative study between Japan and China. Endo discovered that the Empress of Japan was introduced as the ‘mother of the Emperor’s childre’ rather than as the ‘wife of the Emperor’ and that the role of the empress was to give birth to the emperor’s children and take care of them as the mother. She did not hold the power to divide the royal power. This challenges the common belief that royal power was divided among the emperor’s families.

Note, Discussioni e Recensioni / Notes, Discussions, and Reviews

D.T. Potts, Aspects of Kinship in Ancient Iran, (Iran in the Ancient World, 1), Oakland, University of California Press, 2023, i-xv, 1-130

Socio-affectiveness and alternative figures of care for girls, boys and adolescents in Argentine legal praxis

Both the legislation and the doctrinal and jurisprudential creation have begun to recognize the notion of socio-affectivity as a structuring element of family relationships among its members, often granting it primacy over the biological bond or relationships derived from kinship. Although affection has always been a constitutive component of human relations, the classical approach refused and refuses to recognize in it a source of Law and, as such, share the halo of legitimacy that kinship ties have enjoyed since ancient times. This resistance was able to generate many problems in reality, since the lack of legal recognition in some of the figures ruins the advances in the field of human rights. A clear example in Argentine legislation turns out to be the contents of articles 611, 643 and 657 of the Civil and Commercial Code on the prohibition of de facto guardians except the kinship bond between parents and guardians; or the delegation of the exercise of parental responsibility and the granting of custody of a child or adolescent, limiting it only to a relative. Well, while this legal limit occurs, reality prevails and, in some cases, the affective bond overlaps the biological one, owing value to the guiding principle of the best interest of the child to solve the problem raised. From this, the present work will try to demonstrate, through the analysis of the jurisprudence, the solutions reached that combine said guiding principle with the notion of socio-affectivity.

Antiviral properties of essential oil mixture: Modulation of E7 and E2 protein pathways in human papillomavirus (HPV) infection.

Clove is used in Indian and Chinese traditional medicine for viral diseases. Palmarosa essential oils have been traditionally used in India and Southeast Asia since ancient times and have made considerable use of them. In New Caledonia, niaouli oil is used in aromatherapy and pharmaceutical formulations to treat pain and viral diseases. Since ancient times, the South Pacific region has used tamanu oil as a traditional medicine to treat a wide range of skin conditions. This study investigates the antiviral properties of essential oils (EOs) from Eugenia aromaticum (clove oil, CL-R030424005 (CL)), Cymbopogon martinii (palmarosa oil, PA-R040923008 (PA)), Melaleuca viridiflora (niaouli oil, NI-R290124038 (NI)), and Calophyllum inophyllum (tamanu oil, TA-F140224029 (TA)), and their mixture against human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. A D-optimal mixture design is used to determine the most effective EO combinations and evaluate their antiviral efficacy through IC50 values. The EOs were tested for their ability to inhibit HPV-related oncogenes (L1, L2, E1, E2, E6, and E7) in HPV-infected cells with ELISA, qPCR, and Western blot analyses. The optimal mixture (31.5% CL, 31.5% PA, and 37% NI) demonstrated significant antiviral activity, reducing viral replication and protein expression in HPV-infected cells. Ex-vivo permeation studies showed higher permeation rates in healthy tissues compared to infected ones, indicating the oils' potential in targeted drug delivery. Additionally, cytotoxicity assessments confirmed the safety of the EOs at effective concentrations in HPVCs, DoTc2, and HEKa cells. Molecular docking studies further elucidated the interactions between EO components and HPV proteins, supporting their antiviral mechanisms. These findings suggest that EOs, particularly in optimized combinations, offer a promising natural supportive treatment for managing HPV infections, warranting further in vivo animal tests and clinical trials.

Therapeutic Significance of Cornin in Medicine for Their Biological Importance and Pharmacological Activity: An Overview of Iridoid Glycosides of Verbena Officinalis L.

Background: Plant products have been used for the treatment of numerous kinds of human disorders since the very ancient age. Iridoid glycosides are secondary plant metabolites of medicinal importance that have been well investigated in the scientific field for their role in plants. Numerous iridoid class phytochemicals have cardiovascular, anti-viral, anti-hepatotoxic, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, immunomodulatory, anti-spasmodic, hypolipidemic, choleretic, purgative, and hypoglycaemic activity. Methods: Here in the present work, we have collected scientific information on cornin and presented it with respect to its medicinal importance and pharmacological activities with their analytical aspects. Scientific information on cornin has been collected from numerous scientific databases such as PubMed, Science Direct, Google, and Scopus to know the biological potential of cornin in medicine. Further, pharmacological activity scientific data of cornin has been presented in this work with proper citations. Results: The scientific data of the present paper described the biological significance of cornin in medicine. The further detailed pharmacological activity of cornin signified its therapeutic effectiveness on cerebral ischemia, angiogenesis, autophagy, myocardial injury, cerebral injury, oxidative injury, lipid peroxidation, proliferation, and cytochrome p450. Analytical data signified the separation, isolation, and identification techniques of cornin in medicine. Conclusion: The scientific information of the present work will be beneficial for all scientific people to explore the therapeutic effectiveness of cornin in medicine.

ECLIPTA ALBA: A Review of Pharmacological Activity with Phyto-Constituents

Plants are the primary source of food, shelter, and various remedial approaches, they are being in use for treating various kinds of human ailments across the world since the ancient times. The review describes the innumerable herbal medicinal plants named Eclipta alba hassk (Asteraceae) which is commonly known as Bhringraj and false daisy. This plant is known for its extra –ordinary therapeutic properties. It is one of most widely used plant in traditional systems of medicines such as Ayurvedic, Unani, siddha, Homeopathy, Chinese, and folk. Bhringraj (Eclipta prostrate or eclipta alba) is a famous herb known for known for its benefits and usage in hair growth and liver disorders. This article highlights chief constituents, extraction procedure, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, phytochemical screening&amp; toxicity studies of Eclipta alba. Each part of this medicinal plant contains many important phytochemical constituents such as flavonoids, steroids, saponins. E. alba exhibites many other important biological properties such as anticancer, antibacterial, antiviral, antistress, and immunomodulatory. It increases the production of bile from the liver, improves liver functions, reduce constipation and correct digestion and enhance metabolism.

Investigation of Substance Basis and Pharmacodynamics of Qingzao Jiefei Decoction in Lung Cancer based on Serum Pharmacochemistry and Proteomics.

Qingzao Jiufei Decoction(QD)is a renownedprescription for nourishing lung Yin to treat lung related diseases in ancient and modern times. It has been reported that QDcan effectively inhibit the growth of lung cancer, but the material basis and mechanism of its treatment of LC remain to be further studied. In this experiment, we combined serum pharmacochemistry and proteomics to study the pharmacodynamic material basis and mechanism of QDagainst lung cancer.The results showed that In vitro a total of 121 compounds were identified. Atotal of 33 prototype chemical components were identified in vivo, which may be effective active ingredients for QDtreatment of LC.Proteomic experiments have shown that compared with the model group, 113 DEPs in LC tissues were significantly changed after QDtreatment, among which 57 proteins were significantly up-regulated and 56 proteins were significantly down-regulated (p< 0.05),GO and KEGG enrichment analysis was performed on these DEPs. Atotal of 205 pathways were enriched, and the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway was experimentally verified. The results showed that QDcan be used to treat lung cancer by inhibiting the activation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway.

An Overview on Commercial Cultivation and Collection Aspects of Wrightia tinctoria

Abstract: Since ancient times human utilized the nature to cure various ailments. The knowledge of medicinal plants resulted in the development of various indigenous systems of medicine worldwide. Serendipitous discovery as well as scientific approach on the reason for medicinal properties of plants gave the knowledge of chemical constituents such as secondary metabolites in plants. Wrightia tinctoria which is commonly known as ‘Danthapala’ is a known potential medicinal plant, the leaves of which is traditionally used in the treatment of psoriasis and non-specific dermatitis in Siddha and Ayurvedic systems of medicine and distributed in tropical region belongs to the family Apocynaceae. This plant is beneficial for the treatment of dandruff, various scalp and skin disorders. Phytochemical and pharmacological investigation on the various parts of the plant showed anti-ulcer, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anthelmintic, anti-cancer, anti-dandruff, wound healing and anti-anxiety activity. The current review focus on providing an update on the recent pharmacological and phytochemical investigations on the plant by researchers around the globe with special emphasis on Antisporiatic, Antifungal, Antibacterial, Antiviral, Cytotoxic, Anti- inflammatory, Anti-diabetic, Analgesic, Hepatoprotective, Anthelmintic, and Wound healing activities

Ancient Era Hospitals “Asclepions” and their Heritage to the Day

Asclepios is the god of medicine and health in mythology. In ancient times, healing was sought in the worship of Asclepios. Ancient hospitals built in the name of Asclepios are called “Asclepion”. In ancient times, around three hundred and twenty Asclepions were built within the borders of Greece and Türkiye today. The most important of these ancient hospitals are located in Epidauros, Pergamon, Kos, Athens and Knidos. There was also a health center (an ancient hospital) in Allianoi. In this study, the most significant locations, architectural features, treatment methods, historical and cultural roles of the ancient hospitals among the Asclepions in Western Anatolia and Greece were investigated. When the treatment methods in Asclepions are examined, it is seen that holistic medical practices were applied with a biopsychosocial approach to the patients called guests. Diseases were not seen as one-dimensional but as the result of complex processes and negative environmental, social and psychological interactions. Patients were treated with respect as beings with mental, ethical, emotional, social, moral and natural characteristics. Centuries earlier in Asclepions, the first functional applications of hospital architecture and individual and holistic medical approaches are seen. We think that today's hospital architecture and treatment approaches have many features that can be learned from the heritage of ancient hospitals in history.

Herbosomes drug delivery system for improving the phytochemical bioavailability

Since ancient times, herbal medicines have been the most significant type of medicine used in all societies. There have been numerous plants reports that plant extracts exhibit a variety of biological properties, including immunomodulator activity, hepatoprotective activity, antilipidemic activity, etc. Herbosomes are freshly developed herbal preparations that are absorbed more readily than traditional Phyto molecules or botanical extracts, producing improved bioavailability and effects. The integration of polyphenolic compounds into phospholipid-based self-assembled delivery systems, also referred to as Herbosomes, can improve the less oral bioavailability of these compounds. Numerous products, including those made from Ginkgo biloba, Silybum marianum, and Camellia sinensis, contain phytosomal drug delivery systems.

Addressing Shortages with Storage: From Old Grain Pits to New Solutions for Underground Storage Systems

In every era, climate variability and frequent food shortages have made it necessary to store harvested grains for more than one season. Underground grain storage has been used since ancient times throughout the world. Italy (Cerignola) and Malta (Valletta and Floriana) have preserved rare examples of more recent (from the 16th century onward) large concentrations of grain pits, capable of accumulating substantial reserves to cope with famine or siege. No longer in operation, they represent an important part of the cultural heritage of the agricultural economy. The purpose of this narrative review was, after a geographical framing of grain pits in the Eurasian and African macro-areas, to take the Italian and Maltese grain pits as historical case studies to draw attention to the reevaluation of underground grain storage in the context of climate change and food insecurity. Today, as in the past, grain reserves play a significant role in food security in developing countries and, due to climate change and geopolitical events that can cause disruptions in grain supplies, are also increasingly important for developed countries. A comparison of traditional and modern underground storage systems reveals the great flexibility of this technology, ranging from basic pits of different sizes to large underground granaries equipped with a support structure. The advantages of underground storage, such as environmental sustainability due to thermal insulation of the soil and airtight conditions that make high energy inputs for grain cooling and pesticide use unnecessary, are still useful today, perhaps more so than in the past. Prospects for development include technical solutions involving the application of innovative information technology-based monitoring systems and the use of modern materials to ensure the performance of waterproofing, seepage control, and static safety, all tools for further evolution of this ancient storage system.

Selected Recent Advances in the Utilization of Biopolymers for Nano‐ and Microfiber Materials and Nonwovens Production

AbstractWhen the variety of synthetic polymers came up in the 20th century, they expectedly replaced many fiber materials which were made so far from biopolymers since ancient times (e.g., for textiles, medical products, etc.). Meanwhile, to some extent, there is a strong revival of various fibers from biopolymers regarding their utilization for various applications, based on their interesting structures, availability, sustainability, costs, and other factors. Regarding bioeconomy and sustainability, there has thus been an intensive market dynamic for biopolymers. Therefore, especially a variety of fiber materials have recently been described that are based on different biopolymers as, e.g., polysaccharides and biopolyesters. For this, a variety of enhanced polymer structure modification and sophisticated processing methods are applied. Instead of a complete and comprehensive overview (which would be beyond the scope of this Perspective format), the aim of this article is to elucidate some selected recent advantages in this field and to focus on the special features of these examples.

Unknown interiors of ancient Egypt: producing by artificial intelligence in the context of light-space relationship

This study presents a design method aimed at visualizing cultural heritage through the architecture of ancient Egypt using modern technologies. With the deepening of the digital age, the use of digital technology and artificial intelligence in cultural heritage research has become an important tool for renewing and disseminating period architecture. The reason for choosing the interior spaces of ancient Egypt as a sample in this study is that, in addition to leaving a rich heritage in the field of architecture, ancient Egypt offers distinct period architecture in terms of space-light relationship. As a result of literature review, keywords related to architecture and the relationship between space and light in the Ancient Period were identified, and the study was visualized using the state-of-the-art artificial intelligence technology of today, namely human-computer interaction combined with text-to-image technology. The motivation and aim of this study is to demonstrate the role of reanimating cultural heritage like ancient period architectures in the computer environment based on interpretation, contributing to architectural sustainability, and spreading to future periods.

New approaches to the architectural design, amenities, and function of macella: typologies, scale, and the Macellum Magnum

Abstract In recent years, scholars have drawn particular attention to the existence in the ancient world of permanent, specialized market buildings, macella or μάκɛλλοι, which offered dedicated facilities for the processing and sale of luxury commodities such as fish and meat. However, important questions remain about the typologies, architecture, and “end-users” of these structures. Here, I outline a basic model for how the total and average wealth and traffic of settlements increases with estimated populations, before exploring the relationships between the total footprints and wider architectural characteristics of macella and estimated populations of sites. This reveals that there is a series of relationships between these measures that are not only consistent with wider theoretical and empirical expectations, but also have the potential to alter dramatically our understanding of macella by revealing the connections between the sizes and capacities of these structures and the wealth, connectivity, and integration of settlements.

Historic Peculiarity of Russian Modernization Processes

The article tries to restore interest in the concept of economy morphology in academic community that was put forward at the Faculty of Economics in the Moscow University in 2004. It was a scientific hypothesis explaining evolutional features of transformations by analyzing internal structural changes. The authors use the term ‘economy morphology’ that gives an opportunity to specify the development of Russian economy both within the period being investigated and the current one. Comparative analysis of economic evolution styles in Europe-Asia economy systems from ancient times to the early 20th century allows us to advance an assumption about multi-variability of development demonstrated and proved in economic morphemes. Conceptual description of economic forms present in Russia was provided by examples given in the Domostroy and in works by I.V. Pososhkov and V.N. Tatischev, the founders of the Russian school of economics. The authors pay special attention to dubious foundation forming Russian economy morphology and affecting all stages of modernization processes in Russia. The importance of spirituality is highlighted that provides internal stability to any economic modification. It was underlined that this approach gives a chance to substantiate historic peculiarity of the Russian economic system that became evident in the process of modernization restructuring in the 19th – early 20th century. The authors came to the conclusion that morpheme approach is necessary to understand both the previous way of development and the current standing of Russian economy, prospects of its progress in conditions of global transformation of economic relations.

Historical Development of Taxation From Ancient Times to Modern Day: Implications for the Future

This study examines the history of taxation, specifically how taxation was used over the centuries by major world civilizations. This study provides a comprehensive review of past and more recent studies, spanning the full length of tax history using a quasi-empirical approach, thereby offering a unique contribution to the academic literature. Theoretical foundations include Adam Smith’s Canons of Taxation, benefit theory, ability theory, and tax assignment theory. Implications are drawn for the future of taxation. Findings suggest that various forms of taxation played a critical role in amassing resources necessary to build and sustain world empires and republics. Implications are that this will continue. Excessive taxation was included as a factor in the downfall of some empires. World history might have taken a notably different direction without the revenues accumulated via taxation. Results will interest tax policy makers, academic tax researchers, law professors, and others concerned with the historicity of taxation. Results can also be used by accounting and legal educators.