Ancient Country Research Articles

Rethinking of the Crisis of Universalism: Toward a Pluralistic Orientation of Cosmopolitanism

In commemorating the centenary of the end of World War I, we could not but reflect on many of the valuable legacies and lessons the War has left behind it. To us humanities scholars, what we are most concerned about is the legitimacy of universalism or whether there is such a thing as absolute universalism. The same is true of modernity, for people may well think that modernity represents the great interest of all people in the world. But modernity manifests itself in different modes in different countries and nations as different countries and nations have different conditions, especially in such an ancient country as China. The present article will illustrate how modernity was imported from the West into China and how it has been readjusted according to its own condition and thereby developing in an uneven way. Through some theoretical elaboration the article has deconstructed the so-called “singular” or “universalist” modernity with the Chinese practice and reconsidered the concept of cosmopolitanism which has certain parallel elements in ancient Chinese philosophy. Considering the pluralistic orientation of contemporary cosmopolitanism, the author offers his own reconstruction of a sort of new cosmopolitanism in the era of globalization.

Westernization versus indigenization in the context of global mental health: training and services in Ethiopia – University of Gondar in focus

Ethiopia is one of the ancient countries inhabited by well over a hundred million people of diverse cultures and languages. Such diversity requires mental health training and services to be tailored to those diverse needs of the people. Consequently, there are important implications for mental health training and services. The gap in mental health knowledge is attributed perhaps to a lack of trained professionals in relevant fields in awareness and understanding of advances made in global mental health (GMH) and blended with indigenous wisdom. Training is Western orientated and lacks integration with local culture and wisdom. The study intends to explore the extent to which mental health training and services have customized Western mental health traditions into the indigenous knowledge, skills, and practices of Ethiopia. The study employed an exploratory design, and data was collected through focus group discussions (FGD) from a total of eighteen faculty, alumni, and practitioners working at the University of Gondar. Data was collected using semi-structured interview guides from the different groups. Mental health knowledge in our training and service providers is perceived to be culture specific rather than universal. However, it is highly influenced by the Western culture diffused through various media. This has resulted in faculty and practitioners being dependent on Western resources without adapting them into indigenous wisdom and cultures. This has prevented them from exploring and practicing what is available in our specific cultures and traditions, such as books written by the religious scholars and traditional healers.

Historical perspective of neurology in Iran

Iran is an ancient country, known as the cradle of civilization. The history of medicine in Iran goes back to the existence of a human in this country, divided into three periods: pre-Islamic, medieval, and modern period. There are records of different neurologic terms from the early period, while Zoroastrian (religious) prescription was mainly used until the foundation of the first medical center (Gondishapur). In the medieval period, with the conquest of Islam, prominent scientists were taught in Baghdad, like Avicenna, who referred to different neurologic diseases including stroke, paralysis, tremor, and meningitis. Several outstanding scientists developed the medical science of neurology in Iran, the work of whom has been used by other countries in the past and present. In the modern era, the Iranian Neurological Association was established with the efforts of Professor Jalal Barimani in 1991.

Treatise on the People of Wa in the Chronicle of the Kingdom of Wei: The World's Earliest Written Text on Japan by Saeki Arikiyo

Reviewed by: Treatise on the People of Wa in the Chronicle of the Kingdom of Wei: The World's Earliest Written Text on Japan by Saeki Arikiyo John R. Bentley (bio) Treatise on the People of Wa in the Chronicle of the Kingdom of Wei: The World's Earliest Written Text on Japan. By Saeki Arikiyo; translated by Joshua A. Fogel. MerwinAsia, Portland ME, 2018. x, 420 pages. $55.00, cloth; $32.00 paper. Imagine students in a history class at a high school on the North American continent in the year 3719 CE. They are reading an ancient record about an emissary from an ancient country called France journeying to a loose federation that was once known as the United States of America. This emissary's record states, Ambassador Bernard and his group depart from a port called O'Hare in a settlement known as Chicago; they travel north 75 miles and arrive at a place called Milwaukee. The ruler there is a chieftain called Barrett. The emissary and his group bend their journey west, heading 35 miles, arriving at a cultural center called Oconomowoc. A minor chieftain called Mayor resides here. Traveling another 60 miles west the ambassador and his party reach a lake called Madison. This locale is famous for cheese. Reading this account, the students learn about their early ancestors who lived in a territory called Wisconsin. Perhaps unwittingly, several questionable assumptions are made based on this surviving text. The most tenuous assumption is that these linguistic fragments represent an early form of their modern (English) language. After roughly 1,700 years, the knowledge that these six place names represent five different languages, only one of which is English, would have been primarily lost. Chicago, Milwaukee, and Oconomowoc are actually from two different native Amerind languages (Miami and Potawatomi). Little is known about the inhabitants of the Japanese islands around the third and fourth centuries. During the first 250 years CE, emissaries from Eastern Han and Cao Wei China or from the commanderies on the Korean peninsula traveled the peninsula then crossed the Tsushima Straits to Kyushu and into parts of Honshu, recording the titles, toponyms, and cultural artefacts of the people they observed. Depending on the locale, the Chinese referred to these non-Chinese peoples by specific labels, such as "Han (韓)" or "Wa (倭)." The label "Wa" survived into the Yamato dynasty [End Page 444] in early Japan, so modern readers and scholars find it difficult to resist the temptation to connect the Wa with the ancestors of the Japanese. While the connection is logical, this assumption is still not scientifically proven. These archival accounts of the Wa were compiled in varying degrees of detail in Hou Hanshu (fifth century), Wei lüe (circa 260, lost), and Wei zhi (circa 284). The common reaction in modern Japan is to view the accounts in these records as describing the people and culture of early Japan. Wa titles and toponyms in Wei zhi are often interpreted as being Japanese linguistic forms that are then uncritically mapped on to surviving titles and toponyms, but this exercise tends toward obfuscation instead of elucidation. It is easy to forget that we really do not know much about the Wa who lived 1,700 years ago, so these data in Wei zhi need to be used with great care. Saeki Arikiyo's important two-volume work, Gishi wajinden o yomu (rendered by Joshua Fogel as "Treatise on the People of Wa in the Chronicle of the Kingdom of Wei"), starts by amassing a large amount of documentary evidence to demonstrate that the account in Wei zhi should be taken seriously and not swept aside as wholly unreliable. Having said that, it is still prudent to be cautious as we approach this text and what it can (or cannot) tell us about the early inhabitants of the Japanese islands. Saeki's important contribution is to help the reader process the information in Wei zhi as accurately as possible. Saeki goes through the 2,000-character account of the Wa piece by piece. He does this by combing through the considerable amount of Chinese texts that have accrued over time, picking up examples of...

Six Poems from Harlem Shadows

Six Poems from Harlem Shadows Claude McKay (bio) america Although she feeds me bread of bitterness,And sinks into my throat her tiger's tooth,Stealing my breath of life, I will confessI love this cultured hell that tests my youth!Her vigor flows like tides into my blood,Giving me strength erect against her hate.Her bigness sweeps my being like a flood.Yet as a rebel fronts a king in state,I stand within her walls with not a shredOf terror, malice, not a word of jeer.Darkly I gaze into the days ahead,And see her might and granite wonders there,Beneath the touch of Time's unerring hand,Like priceless treasures sinking in the sand. home thoughts Oh something just now must be happening there!That suddenly and quiveringly here,Amid the city's noises, I must thinkOf mangoes leaning o'er the river's brink,And dexterous Davie climbing high above,The gold fruits ebon-speckled to remove,And toss them quickly in the tangled massOf wis-wis twisted round the guinea grass ;And Cyril coming through the bramble-trackA prize bunch of bananas on his back;And Georgie—none could ever dive like him—Throwing his scanty clothes off for a swim;And schoolboys, from Bridge-tunnel going home,Watching the waters downward dash and foam.This is no daytime dream, there's something in it,Oh something's happening there this very minute! [End Page 106] after the winter Some day, when trees have shed their leaves And against the morning's whiteThe shivering birds beneath the eaves Have sheltered for the night,We'll turn our faces southward, love, Toward the summer isleWhere bamboos spire to shafted grove And wide-mouthed orchids smile. And we will seek the quiet hill Where towers the cotton tree,And leaps the laughing crystal rill, And works the droning bee.And we will build a cottage there Beside an open glade,With black-ribbed blue-bells blowing near, And ferns that never fade. harlem shadows I hear the halting footsteps of a lass In Negro Harlem when the night lets fallIts veil. I see the shapes of girls who pass To bend and barter at desire's call.Ah, little dark girls who in slippered feetGo prowling through the night from street to street! Through the long night until the silver break Of day the little gray feet know no rest;Through the lone night until the last snow-flake Has dropped from heaven upon the earth's white breast,The dusky, half-clad girls of tired feetAre trudging, thinly shod, from street to street. Ah, stern harsh world, that in the wretched way Of poverty, dishonor and disgrace,Has pushed the timid little feet of clay, The sacred brown feet of my fallen race!Ah, heart of me, the weary, weary feetIn Harlem wandering from street to street. [End Page 107] enslaved Oh when I think of my long-suffering race,For weary centuries despised, oppressed,Enslaved and lynched, denied a human placeIn the great life line of the Christian West;And in the Black Land disinherited,Robbed in the ancient country of its birth,My heart grows sick with hate, becomes as lead,For this my race that has no home on earth.Then from the dark depths of my soul I cryTo the avenging angel to consumeThe white man's world of wonders utterly:Let it be swallowed up in earth's vast womb,Or upward roll as sacrificial smokeTo liberate my people from its yoke! outcast For the dim regions whence my fathers cameMy spirit, bondaged by the body, longs.Words felt, but never heard, my lips would frame;My soul would sing forgotten jungle songs.I would go back to darkness and to peace,But the great western world holds me in fee,And I may never hope for full releaseWhile to its alien gods I bend my knee.Something in me is lost, forever lost,Some vital thing has gone out of my heart,And I must walk the way of life a...

Cybernetyczne spojrzenie na prawo – przyczynek do historii cybernetyki prawniczej

Cybernetics is a science devoted to control while law is one of the methods of social control. Cyberneticists’ interest in law as well as the interest in cybernetics exhibited by lawyers are both natural. The article describes the history of the development of human thought which finally led to the creation of cybernetics. The paper reaches as far back in time as Ancient Greece where the notions of power and governing were researched scientificallyand discussed publically. Conversely, the ancient countries of the Middle East treated the issues of power as magic and they were considered arcane knowledge. Furthermore, the article mentions the cybernetics concepts which Trentowski expressed in his treaty from 1843. Next, it contains a description of Wiener’s views on law. Wiener is considered to be the creator of cybernetics as a separate branch of science. Also the reasons behind fightingcybernetics in the USSR were discussed as well as why it was promoted there afterwards. Moreover, publications on the subject of law and cybernetics by three Polish legal theorists (Studnicki, Kisza and Malinowski) were presented. The most important achievements and the main assumptions of the Polish school of cybernetics were delineated. It was first created by Marian Mazur and then further developed by Józef Kossecki. Also the views of some of the Polish cyberneticists on the subject of law were portrayed. The use of cybernetics by Polish forensic scientists was mentioned, especially by Mirosław Owoc. There is also included a reference to the most recent publications on the subject matter of law and cybernetics. Suitable juxtapositions, comparisons and summaries were made. Even though the articleconcentrates on an antiquarian approach instead of a substantive one, it more than once emphasizes the advantages and disadvantages of each idea.

From the history of agrarian thought

Abstract Agriculture has long been recognized as the main field of production in Egypt, Babylon, China, India … It is not accidental that we still have the most precious materials on the issues of management of this sphere, which have not lost their sensitivity to the present day. The study analyzes the individual aspects of the problem mainly on the example of ancient countries, particularly Rome. Based on the conclusion: For Platon the main thing is: The existence of natural farmland where everything is made according to demand; The land is the main sign - “mother”, which is the property of the “ideal state”. About the role of farming, Xenophon had a similar view, who first used the term “economics” and Aristotle, whose ownership is the term “economic science”; The issues of Latifundian agrarian farming research gained particular attention to Antiquity in Rome, where the specialists of Roman thinkers clearly outlined that the main field of agriculture, and the income derived from it - is the most sacred; The most effective product is near the selling markets; The importance of livestock, viticulture and gardening took place in the foreground; The objective of the science of farming is to study soil composition, selection of favorable time for land-processing tools and land cultivation; Additional work used in land cultivation ensures receiving of surplus product … Despite the experience of history, unfortunately, in post-Soviet Georgia does not pay much attention to the development of real economy, including agriculture sector.

Psychosocial Distress as a Factor in Patients With Cancer Seeking Support: A Hermeneutic Study

Cancer is one of the main causes of human death in the world, but its mortality rates have been in continual decline for the past 20 years (Siegel, Miller, & Jemal, 2015). It is a growing problem in Middle Eastern countries (Daher, 2011). In Iran, an ancient country in the Middle East (Borimnejad, Mardani-Hamooleh, Seyedfatemi, & Tahmasebi, 2014), cancer is the third most common cause of death, after heart disease and traffic accidents. The incidence of cancer in Iran is anticipated to be around 48 to 112 and 51 to 144 cases per year per million people for women and men, respectively (Seyedfatemi, Borimnejad, Mardani-Hamooleh, & Tahmasebi, 2014). As the incidence of new cases of cancer increases every year, breaking bad news to patients is very important. Bad news is described as any piece of information that could potentially be directed to negatively change a patient’s expectations, ideas, feelings, or outlook (Salem & Salem, 2013). Breaking bad news to patients with cancer is a delicate and challenging task for most health-care providers (Eng, Yaakup, Shah, Jaffar, & Omar, 2012). Bad news about cancer creates pain for patients (Zebrack, Chesler, & Kaplan, 2010). It is unexpected and often may come as a shock (Yoo, Levine, Aviv, Ewing, & Au, 2010). In this regard, despite efforts by family members to conceal cancer diagnoses from patients, the majority of patients discovered the diagnosis of their own accord (Wang, Guo, Peng, Su, & Chen, 2011). Breaking bad news to patients with cancer is diverse across different cultures (Table 1). Nondisclosure is the norm for Iranian people. However, health-care workers often want to tell patients of their diagnosis but worry that breaking bad news could evoke fear and anxiety for patients. In fact, it is difficult for health-care workers to predict cancer patients’ responses following disclosure. Therefore, a significant percent of cancer patients in many Mediterranean countries, such as Iran, are not made aware of their diagnosis, and many health-care workers prefer to disclose the cancer diagnosis directly to patients’ family members. However, the clinical experiences of the researchers show that family members rarely transfer this information to patients, and frequently prevent the disclosure of the cancer diagnosis.

A Simple Analyzation of the Similarity Between the Italians and the Chinese: The Passion for Family and Food

China and Italy are two ancient countries with splendid culture, the relationship between China and Italy can be tracked to thousands years ago. With the globalization of the world in every aspect, how to avoid the misunderstanding and the conflicts in the cross-cultural communication become the extremely urgent need for every country and every people. For long time, in the communication between China and Italy, not only scholar but also common people payed more attention to the differences between two countries, but a good Chinese proverb “seek common ground and reserve differences on certain issue” can be taken as a good instructor of the cross-cultural communication of the new century. How to use better the similarities and reduce the differences is a new challenge of all the Chinese and Italian researchers and the scholars.

An Evidence-Based Review on Medicinal Value of Clays in Traditional Persian Medicine.

The use of earths and clays for medical purposes dates back to antiquity. In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in researches on traditional remedies in the hope of discovering new drug. Iran is an ancient country with a medical backbone acquired from the experiences of ancient Persian scholars, who had made a great contribution to the development of the medical sciences. Many medical and pharmaceutical books by early Persian scientists still exist and may have the potential of leading researchers to new drug discoveries. Owing to the emergence of new and antimicrobial-resistant infections, present-day medicine has recently begun focusing on medicinal earths and clays especially as mineral antimicrobials. The current study is, therefore, aimed at gathering information regarding medicinal clays in traditional Persian medicine (TPM). Five main Persian materia medica with the key word 'tin' (clay) and current databases such as PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar were searched by key words 'white, green, red, maroon, violet, black, grey and pink clays' and 'pharmacological effects'. Twenty three clays were found in Persian manuscripts. Although their mineralogical compositions are unknown, different pharmacological properties have been attributed to these mineral medicaments. Clay's properties were widely used in medieval times for the treatment of infections to poisoning. They were also used in compound formulations, possibly for their pharmaceutical formulation modifying effects. Modern scientific proofs have also been found in many of the medicinal clays reported in Persian manuscripts. Although many of the reported clays are still unknown, their characterization may lead to new medicinal developments. Novel analytical methods available today make it possible to elucidate the chemical compositions of these minerals as parameters responsible for their medicinal effects.

Cover Chem. Eng. Technol. 5/2016

AbstractChina is an ancient country offering many great inventions and engineering works, such as paper‐making and the Great Wall. However, for China's young chemical industry, the research and development of advanced technologies is still on the way. Five typical chemical engineering areas in which significant progress has been made in China are presented on the cover. Namely, they are distillation, crystallization, microreactors, hydrocyclones, and membranes, which are all specifically reviewed or discussed in this issue. For each area, a representative picture from successful industrial projects developed by authors publishing in this issue and their colleagues is chosen and then inserted into the Great Wall background. We hope more and more chemical processes and technologies will emerge in China, forming a new Great Wall in the chemical industry.

National Transformation: Modern Reconstruction of a Unified Society

In the long river of time, the Chinese nation not only achieved its overall transformation from an ancient country, but also created a new model of development, which deserves to be called a great miracle in the history of human civilizations. The power creating this miracle came from both the development trend of human civilizations and Chinese people’s creative transformation of their historical heritage. Specifically, it refers to how to fully transform from a traditional country to a modern country in terms of existing values, rules, and organizational systems, so as to achieve organic integration of the unification of the Chinese nation and the country under the rule of the people. Within the organic integration, China’s internal development logic requires that modernization and democratization must be conducted under the premise of “keeping the unification of China”, which is the historical requirement for China’s modern transformation. The trend of modernization and democratization requires that national rejuvenation and unity must be based on people’s democratic liberation as the engine, goal and mission, which is the realistic requirement for China’s modern transformation. China’s modern politics thus formed under the combined effects of historical forces, age forces, and human forces. Similar to all modern countries, China takes democratization as its fundamental orientation. However, its historical requirement, realistic foothold, and main force creating the modern politics are totally different from those of other countries. Therefore, China formed its unique modern politics and a republican and democratic form of modern politics with Chinese characteristics has been created. To grasp and understand China’s modern politics, we should fully understand not only the nature of modern democracy, but also the source, foundation and process of China’s modern politics.

Development of the society of the middle ages Naxkshab

Southern Sogd (Naxkshab) one is ancient country of Central Asia. In the article is analyzed scientific principles of progress society early middle ages of Naxkshab.

Sleep medicine education in India

India is an ancient country with a vast population, diverse geography and culture. Although sleep medicine has been rapidly progressing during the last decade in the country, the ancient Indian literature is rich in descriptions of sleep physiology and the importance of sleep in life. In spite of rapid industrialization and the emergence of a modern 24/7 h society, knowledge about sleep and its disorders is lacking amongst the general public and doctors. A need is felt to raise the level of awareness of sleep to that of the level of nutrition and exercise. There is shortage of trained certified sleep specialists and technicians to meet the emerging demand. A need is felt to provide standardized sleep health care service. The role of professional sleep societies, industry, private enterprises and government agencies in promoting sleep medicine education in the country is emphasized. Vertical integration of education in sleep physiology and disorders, from school level to graduate and postgraduate medical education, is advocated. To create specialists in the discipline, horizontal integration with physiology, neurology, psychiatry and pulmonary medicine is a viable solution in this multidisciplinary subject. The government should recognize sleep as an important public health issue.

The ancient Greek country estate and its environment

The idea that the countryside might be rendered beautiful by human intervention was widespread in ancient Greece. For example, Xenophon (430–354 bc) admired an agricultural landscape that was also ...

An Interview with Ahlam Mosteghanemi

:Ahlam Mosteghanemi was the first Algerian woman writer to publish a novel in the Arabic language. Her work is therefore very significant in the context of Arab women's writing and feminism. Her novels express a unique understanding of social and political events, and convey the impact of these events on individuals by combining love stories with political and social history, fused together in present time. The interview examines Ahlam Mosteghanemi's novels and the impact of colonization and post-colonization on Mosteghanemi, her writing, Algeria and the Algerian people. Mosteghanemi's decision to write in Arabic and the themes of her novels are directly informed by the Algerian war of independence and as such can be seen both as a statement of independence from the Eurocentric homogenization of language and discourse, and as a feminist political statement. The interview seeks to deconstruct the widespread image of feminist literature as a genre that attempts to explore the female experience through an unnuanced binary focus on the opposition between the male and female within a patriarchal society. The interview pays particular attention to the rich symbolism of Mosteghanemi's novels. Even in the English translation there is a strong sense of the historical and geographical reality of Algeria, an ancient country repeatedly invaded by colonizing forces, and struggling again in the modern world to establish an independent identity. The interview looks at some of the significant themes raised by Mosteghanemi in her novels. In addition to this, the interview pays particular attention to the issue of translation in Mosteghanemi's novels and to her attitudes towards her readership.

English

Our India is a vast nation with rich cultural heritage and social diversity. We have been respecting women in the highest form as Goddesses since ages. There have been several laws to protect women from many centuries in this ancient country. Yet our country is still facing difficulties in achieving women safety. And the situation is no different in the rest of the world. The prevailing situation, laws and suggestions to prevent atrocities were discussed. AIM: The current situations of women hardships around the world were mentioned. The current legal situation and recent legal changes were described. The mammoth task ahead of us to achieve the desired social objective of women safety and respect were discussed. MATERIAL & METHODS: various news articles, police journals, legal textbooks and forensic medicine text books. CONCLUSION: Many things were done to prevent sexual assaults on women, yet the true goal is still a mirage. It’s time to look into the issue from its true grass root levels, i.e., from the psycho-social view apart from legal measures, to achieve the much desired objective of prevention of sexual assaults on women.

Research on Modern Urban Environmental Construction from Inspiration of the Chinese Ancient Ecological

Every country seeks the model of city development for the humans future. The consensus is building ecological-sustainable development city. To our country, we can retrospect those theories in ancient country construction. Chinese ancient ecological ideology contains abundant environmental philosophical views and cultural resources. The paper introduces the standpoint of humans amalgamation with nature from the perspectives of Chinese ancient ecological ideology, points out the derivations in the process of modern urban construction in our country, then offers suggestions for re-interpreting modern values of ancient ecological ideology, in order to provides beneficial inspiration for building modern ecological-sustainable cities.

Empress Dowager Cixi: the concubine who launched modern China

Empress Dowager Cixi (1835-1908) is the most important woman in Chinese history. She ruled China for decades and brought a medieval empire into the modern age. At the age of sixteen, in a nationwide selection for royal consorts, Cixi was chosen as one of the emperor's numerous concubines and sexual partners. When he died in 1861, their five-year-old son succeeded to the throne. Cixi at once launched a palace coup against the regents appointed by her husband and made herself the real ruler of China - behind the throne, literally, with a silk screen separating her from her officials who were all male. In this groundbreaking biography, Jung Chang vividly describes how Cixi fought against monumental obstacles to change China. Under her the ancient country attained virtually all the attributes of a modern state: industries, railways, electricity, telegraph, and an army and navy with up-to-date weaponry. It was she who abolished gruesome punishments like 'death by a thousand cuts' and put an end to foot-binding. She inaugurated women's liberation, and embarked on the path to introduce parliamentary elections to China. Jung Chang comprehensively overturns the conventional view of Cixi as a diehard conservative and cruel despot. Cixi reigned during extraordinary times and had to deal with a host of major national crises: the Taiping and Boxer Rebellions, wars with France and Japan - and the invasion by eight allied powers including Britain, Germany, Russia and the United States. Jung Chang not only records the Empress Dowager's conduct of domestic and foreign affairs, but also takes the reader into the depths of her splendid Summer Palace and the harem of Beijing's Forbidden City, where she lived surrounded by eunuchs - with one of whom she fell in love, with tragic consequences. The world Jung Chang describes here, in fascinating detail, seems almost unbelievable in its extraordinary mixture of the very old and the very new. Based on newly available, mostly Chinese, historical documents such as court records, official and private correspondence, diaries and eye-witness accounts, this biography will revolutionise historical thinking about a crucial period in China's - and the world's - history. Packed with drama, fast-paced and gripping, it is both a panoramic depiction of the birth of modern China and an intimate portrait of a woman: as the concubine to a monarch, as the absolute ruler of a third of the world's population, and as a unique stateswoman.

Fenus nauticum: The origin of insurance

Nautical loan (fenus nauticum or pecunia traiecticia) is a special institute of the Roman law. It is almost certain that this institute has been incorporated in Roman law from the Ancient Greek legal system. Even so, it could be said that the very origins of this institute could be found in other ancient countries (Babylonia, India, Phoenicia and Greece). Fenus nauticum is the institute of Roman private law where the creditor gives money, which has to be transported across the sea or where creditor invests money in buying goods that will be transported over the sea. Creditor bears the risk of all possible accidents that could appear in the nautical transport (and that includes any kind of risks) for money or goods. The loan will be refunded only in cases where the ship or cargo safely arrives at the destination. This loan had the function of nautical insurance. The premium is paid in the form of interest (usurae maritime), which are always, because of the risks, were greater than usual interest and in the classical law they were unlimited. Iustinian has been the only one that limited those interests at rate of 12%. For contracting those interests plain pact (nudum pactum) has been sufficient. Nautical loan played a significant role in the trading, which has been extremely developed in certain period of Roman state. As an institute that provides the possibility of large profits but at the same time wearing a high risk, it has been very attractive to Roman aristocrats. However, providing these types of loans wasn't only the business of wealthy aristocrats, but also the business of professionals who has been specialized for dealing with fenus nauticum. With the decline of trade and the collapse of the Roman Empire, the role of the institute has been reduced. Reoccurrence of nautical loan happened in the XII century. Then, as in the ancient laws, it played a significant role in overseas trade. In fact, during this period there was a revival of Italian cities, the development of trade, but also a renewal of interest for studying the rules of Roman law. Nautical loan served not only in overseas trading ventures but also in the inland trading (fenus quasi nauticum). The importance of this institute could also been seen in one if the decisions of Gregor IX (Naviganti veleunti), which, although not entirely clear, in the opinion of the majority, allows interests in nautical loans. Canonists have also allowed interests in nautical loans because of the risks for the participants. Even so, many of them took a stand that this is not a loan because a high risk rate involved makes the very nature of this institute completely different. Those claims could be supported with arguments. Still there are different opinions of fenus nauticum's legal nature, where some claims that this is kind of loan, the others thinks that this is type of the insurance contract, and there are those who stands on the point that this is a special unnamed contract.