Analysis Of Race Research Articles

Decolonizing Professional Development: A Re-humanizing Approach

ABSTRACTAfter the outlawing of the Mexican American Studies (MAS) program in Tucson, Arizona, K-12 Ethnic Studies programs have materialized across the U.S. at an accelerated rate creating an urgent need for critical Ethnic Studies professional development for K-12 educators. In direct response to both the elimination of the MAS program and the pressing need for teacher training, the Xicanx Institute for Teaching & Organizing (XITO) emerged as a strategy to continue the legacy of the MAS program. XITO, a grassroots urban education collective, has developed a decolonizing and re-humanizing model of Ethnic Studies professional development to counter the deficit model of current teacher education by infusing critical identity work—a critical analysis of race, power, and systems of oppression—together with an Indigenous epistemological framework formerly implemented in the highly successful MAS program. A thorough description of the philosophy and model of XITO’s praxis is presented along with testimonios from participants of the professional development and how they have integrated this critical Ethnic Studies training into their own educational spaces. Recognizing the rate of expansion of K-12 Ethnic Studies programs in the U.S., coalition-building with other grassroots urban education collectives is necessary to scale up the movement to prepare critically and politically conscious Ethnic Studies teachers and organizers.

“Free Our Brothers!”

Why does a given oppressed group sometimes revolt and take to the streets, while other times it does not? This is a question that is never easy to answer. It requires a detailed examination of its history in a given context (here, France), the conditions and means for self-organization, the forms resistance takes, the struggles for hegemony within this social group to impose a group definition, what should comprise its struggle for emancipation. This article is an attempt to question how the revolt against slavery in Libya, after its presentation in a CNN video, was politicized by black people in the French context. We pay attention to the fact that the outrage exceeded frontiers of political organization and took the form of a mass revolt, under the “black” banner. But it has also shown limits in terms of translating this indignation into a political project of emancipation. To our understanding, those limits take root in the weakness of materialist analysis of race and migration as historical processes within a capitalist system, which cannot be understood solely in terms of ideology.

Analysis of race and gender disparities in mortality trends from patients diagnosed with nasopharyngeal, oropharyngeal and hypopharyngeal cancer from 2000 to 2014.

e17533 Background: Squamous cell carcinoma of the nasopharynx, oropharynx and hypopharynx constitutes a majority of head neck malignancies. The incidence-based mortality across different races has been noted to be divergent. This study analyzes the trend in incidence-based mortality from the years 2000 to 2014 amongst both the genders in Caucasian/White and African American/Black patients. Methods: The Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Database was queried to conduct a nation-wide analysis for the years 2000 to 2014. Incidence-based mortality for all stages of nasopharyngeal, oropharyngeal and hypopharyngeal cancer was queried and the results were grouped by race (Caucasian/White, African American/Black, American Indian/Alaskan native and Asian/Pacific Islander) and gender. All stages and ages were included in the analysis. T-test was used to determine statistically significance difference between various subgroups. Linearized trend lines were used to visualize the mortality trends of all sub groups. Results: Incidence-based mortality rates (per 1000) for nasopharyngeal, oropharyngeal and hypopharyngeal cancer all races and both the genders is shown in the table below. The male to female gender disparity in mortality is~ 1:3 in patients with nasopharynx across all races and becomes worse to ~1:4 and ~1:5 for patients with oropharyngeal and hypopharyngeal cancers respectively. Notably the highest incidence based mortality for nasopharyngeal cancers is seen in Asian/pacific Islander males and a similar peak is noted for hypopharyngeal cancers in African American/Black males. Conclusions: A significant gender disparity exists in all there pharyngeal cancers across all races. It is unclear if female gender is protective but further study is warranted in a stage- specific and age-specific manner to better understand this disparity.[Table: see text]

The “male” privilege of White women, the “White” privilege of Black women, and vulnerability to violence: an intersectional analysis of Peace Corps workers in host countries

ABSTRACTThis article is an intersectional analysis of race, gender, and nationality in development work. Using interview, document, and observational data, I situate this inquiry in the context of US women’s work in the Peace Corps, an organization within a field marked by colonialism. I find that White women and women of color have similar and yet instructively different experiences of their gendered identities in field sites, because race and gender differently affect their identities and relative privilege abroad. Specifically, White women volunteers are often afforded some degree of “male” privilege because of their race (though their race may render them vulnerable to sexual violence), while some volunteers of color are afforded a degree of “White” privilege because of their nationality (although their race may also render them vulnerable to violence). However, because the Peace Corps does not challenge conventional race and gender privileges, it lacks the organizational orientation and capacity to effectively address safety and assault among its women volunteers.

Navigating the ‘space between’ the Black/White binary: a call for Jewish multicultural inclusion

ABSTRACTIn the twenty-first century, diversity and multicultural analysis of race often falls along a Black/White binary paradigm. Therefore, those who are perceived to be White are often left out of the discussion of diversity and multicultural education (DME) in the United States. This absence is particularly true for American Jews of Ashkenazi descent. In academic circles today, the notion of ‘Whiteness’ is often used as a determining factor for overlooking antisemitism while addressing issues of racism aimed at other racial and ethnic groups in the United States. Data show that acts of antisemitism continues to rise in the U.S., especially on college campuses. Due to a lack of acknowledgment in the university classroom, Jews continue to be overlooked in multicultural academic thought, which can have wide-ranging consequences for Jews and non-Jews alike.

Jockey injuries during the Siena “Palio”. A 72-year analysis of the oldest horse race in Italy

IntroductionHorse racing is a hazardous sport. We analyzed the incidence and characteristics of jockey injuries in a typical horse race. MethodsWe analyzed all injuries sustained by 224 jockeys in the last 72 years. ResultsIt was found that in 96.1% of the races there was at least one fall and in 28.6% of the races 50% or more of the jockeys fell. In 43.4% of the falls, the jockey was taken to the emergency room. Comparing the Palio with traditional races in other countries, a higher injury incidence rate was observed for every 100 falls (109.884 vs 27–59) and a lower concussion rate/100 falls (0.97 vs 1.8-7.4). ConclusionThe Palio is one of the most threatening races that continues today. Jockeys are at greater risk for a fall than any other race in the world.

Ethnic Discipline Gap: Unseen Dimensions of Racial Disproportionality in School Discipline

Research on the school discipline gap reveals growing awareness of the disproportionate impact on students of color; however, dynamics of the racial discipline gap remain underanalyzed. This article uses risk ratios to descriptively establish if ethnic disproportionality in school discipline is present among Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI) subgroups. We find that when AAPI data are disaggregated, significant variations in discipline patterns emerge. Pacific Islanders are nearly twice as likely as their White peers to be disciplined when separated from Asian Americans, and all Pacific Islander subgroups are at equal or higher risk for discipline. We also find a discipline gap between ethnic subgroups. Our findings affirm the need to further refine the analyses of race and school discipline.

Representations of fatness in Parents magazine: A critical discourse analysis

ABSTRACTThe authors investigate bodily pressures targeted at mothers through parenting magazines in a neoliberal cultural context. Theoretically rooted Foucault’s framework of biopower, the authors applied Foucauldian critical discourse analysis to examine messaging related to food and weight in Parents magazine. Findings highlight three key problematic discourses: (a) food practices are moral, physical, and emotional decisions made by mothers; (b) women—including mothers—have a moral obligation to seek a thin, fit body and to model weight/body maintenance activities for their children; and (c) fat children are inherently unhealthy and at risk of becoming fat adults. These discourses are critically assessed within the context of present literature related to mother blame, with layered analyses of race and gender.

Abstract TMP50: Racial Differences in Mechanical Thrombectomy Among Patients With Ischemic Stroke

Introduction: Despite decades of national declines in stroke incidence, African Americans (AA) are 2-3 times more likely to have a stroke, are younger at the time of their stroke and are more likely to die of a stroke, when compared to Non-Hispanic Whites (NHW). This likely related to differing risk factor profiles and decreased access to care. We sought to describe the recent trends in national and regional thrombectomy utilization and determine if there are racial disparities in treatment of large vessel occlusion. Methods: The National Inpatient Sample (NIS) approximates a 20% stratified sample of all hospital discharges in the US. We queried the NIS from 2006-2014 stroke, tPA administration and endovascular thrombectomy. We stratified utilization by race (AA, Hispanic, NHW and other) and accounted for sex, age, hospital characteristics, US region, household income, insurance type, tPA, disease severity and other factors using logistic regression. Results: We identified a total of 889,309 observations of acute stroke, of which there were 5,256 thrombectomy observations (0.60%). Overall thrombectomy utilization nearly quadrupled from 2006-2008 to 2014-2016 (OR 3.6, CI 2.50-5.10). In the adjusted model, rate of thrombectomy utilization was significantly lower for AA compared to NHW (OR 0.67, CI 0.58-0.76) but not for Hispanics (OR 0.94, CI 0.78-1.13). Utilization rates by US region (Northeast, Midwest, South, West) were only significant for increased utilization in the US West (OR 1.57, CI 1.15-2.07). Utilization rates did not differ by income quartiles, but varied by insurance type with Medicaid associated with a lower odds (OR 0.87, CI 0.76-1.00) and private insurance a higher odds (OR 1.24, CI 1.14-1.34) of thrombectomy utilization. Interaction analysis of AA race and insurance type was not significant. Conclusions: We show show a significant disparity in thrombectomy utilization for AA compared to NHW. More work is needed to understand the underlying drivers.

Prince: double-consciousness in expressing the value of work

Prince was famous for engaging in dualities and multiplicities. His music spanned multiple genres and at different times in his nearly 4-decade career, Prince played with the boundaries of both gender and racial identity. Prince was also well known for his intense work, and the theme of work is consistently present in his music, his public statements and some of his most publicized actions. This article discusses how Prince expressed his ideas about the value of work in ways that were both race-specific and universal and that reflected the concept of double-consciousness—a framework for the analysis of race introduced by W.E.B. DuBois at the beginning of the 20th century.

Radiotherapy after surgery has significant survival benefits for patients with triple-negative breast cancer.

ObjectivesThe value of adjuvant radiotherapy for triple‐negative breast cancer (TNBC) has been controversial recently. This study aims to clarify the influence of radiotherapy on the survival of TNBC patients after surgery based on a large population analysis.MethodsThe Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database was exploited to select eligible patients from 2010 to 2014. The categorical variables were examined by chi‐square tests. Breast cancer‐specific survival (BCSS) and overall survival (OS) were compared among patients who received or not received adjuvant radiotherapy after surgery by Kaplan‐Meier method with log‐rank test. Univariate and multivariate survival analysis of BCSS and OS were performed using the Cox proportional hazard model.ResultsTotally 22 802 patients were enrolled in this study, of which 10 905 patients received radiotherapy after surgery while 11 897 patients did not receive radiotherapy. Compared with those patients who did not receive radiotherapy, the radiation group had a larger proportion of tumor size <2.0 cm (45.8% vs 38.8%) and chemotherapy (82.5% vs 67.4%). The Kaplan‐Meier plots displayed that patients in the radiation group had better survival than the no radiation group in both BCSS and OS (P < 0.001, respectively). In univariate Cox analysis of BCSS, age 40‐60, married status, white and other race, chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery were associated with better survival (HR < 1, P < 0.05). Specifically, patients who received radiotherapy exhibited better BCSS (HR = 0.52, 95% CI = 0.48‐0.57, P < 0.001). After adjusting for confounding factors by multivariable Cox regression analysis, receipt of radiotherapy was still associated with improved BCSS (HR = 0.79, 95% CI = 0.72‐0.87, P < 0.001). Survival analysis of OS produced similar results. Generally, these data indicate that radiotherapy after surgery has significant survival benefits for the TNBC patients.ConclusionsThis study has confirmed the survival advantage of adjuvant radiotherapy for the TNBC patients. These findings may optimize the current individualized treatment decisions for this patient population.

Paintbrush for Hire: The Travels of James and Emma Cameron, 1840–1900 by Frederick C. Moffatt

Reviewed by: Paintbrush for Hire: The Travels of James and Emma Cameron, 1840–1900 by Frederick C. Moffatt Matthew Fox-Amato Paintbrush for Hire: The Travels of James and Emma Cameron, 1840–1900. By Frederick C. Moffatt. ( Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2018. Pp. xii, 367. $58.00, ISBN 978-1-62190-365-9.) Paintbrush for Hire: The Travels of James and Emma Cameron, 1840–1900 is not, primarily, a study of paintings. It does, of course, focus on a specific artist, James Cameron, who was born in Scotland and migrated to Philadelphia (likely in 1833), after which he got his start as an itinerant painter (by 1839) and subsequently married Emma S. Alcock (in 1844). The book illuminates how James made a living by fielding requests for portraits and landscape scenes, particularly in Tennessee. His extant paintings (of which there are fewer than twenty) include the ominously envisioned Avalanche Lake (circa 1854), a [End Page 689] stirring site in the Adirondack Mountains, and the tranquil Belle Isle from Lyon's View I (1856), a popular lookout spot along the Tennessee River near Knoxville. But Frederick C. Moffatt does not make the paintings his focus. Instead, he seeks to write "a travel narrative and a biography" of James and Emma Cameron (p. 15). Each chapter features a new location, as the book moves chronologically from the 1840s to the 1880s, following the Camerons on their dizzying itinerary: Italy; Washington, D.C.; upstate New York; Knoxville and Chattanooga, Tennessee; Augusta, Georgia; Mississippi and the Deep South; and, after the Civil War, Maine and California. What emerges is a textured (though largely descriptive) account of their journey. Antebellum itinerant image-makers have attracted a steady stream of scholarship in recent decades. David Jaffee has revealed how provincial painters catalyzed the appeal for portraits in the late-eighteenth- and early-nineteenth-century North. Many scholars, including Alan Trachtenberg, have highlighted the rise of itinerant daguerreotypists. Paintbrush for Hire adds to this scholarship with its close attention to one artist. Though sometimes mired in minutiae, the book uses diaries and letters to illuminate the business of portraiture, the Camerons' daily lives, and the social networks in which they were immersed. Moffatt delves into relations between James and his patrons, such as Colonel James A. Whiteside of Chattanooga, whom James pictured in Colonel and Mrs. James A. Whiteside, Son Charles and Servants (1858), a portrait of a group situated on a balcony overlooking Chattanooga. Further, Moffatt brings the artistic and intellectual circles of the Camerons to life. During their three-year sojourn in Italy in the 1840s, for instance, Emma and James mingled with such luminaries as transcendentalist Margaret Fuller and sculptor Hiram Powers. They took walks and saw art exhibitions with Fuller. After James's return to America, he continued to correspond with Powers, even discussing ways to publicize Powers's The Greek Slave. Moffatt shows that itinerancy did not mean isolation. The analysis of the Camerons' encounters with slavery is where this dual biography falters. Like many outsiders traveling in the antebellum South, Emma and James were struck by the racial dynamics of the region. Emma was startled by how white southerners "seem to speak and act before [enslaved people], as though they were both deaf and blind!" (p. 115). But she also divulged that she felt "as if my hands were dirty" after touching a black person (p. 100). Moffatt frequently quotes the Camerons discussing bondage at considerable length, but too often he leaves the language underanalyzed, as in the case of a half-page-long passage in which Emma recounts the death of an enslaved waiter named Henry, who worked at a Nashville hotel. How, one wonders, did encounters with bondage shape James's portrayal of African Americans, such as the black subjects in Colonel and Mrs. James A. Whiteside? In this context, Moffatt's language choices are troubling. He strangely uses the term Negro instead of African American on multiple occasions, giving this reader pause. A more thoughtful analysis of slavery and race would have made this book far more rewarding. [End Page 690] Matthew Fox-Amato University of Idaho Copyright © 2019 The Southern Historical Association

RETHINKING MODELS OF MINORITY POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

AbstractPolitical science research has repeatedly identified a strong correlation between high socio-economic status and political participation, but this finding has not been as robust for racial and ethnic minorities. As a response, the literature on minority political participation has produced a series of different models for different groups by adding group-specific variables to the standard SES model. In assigning a single model per group, however, the literature tends to overlook intra-group differences as well as inter-group commonalities, thereby effectively reifying the concept of race and ethnicity. Using survey data from Los Angeles, this article develops a different approach aimed at detecting intra-group differences as well as inter-group commonalities through a recognition of political “styles.” First, using latent class analysis (LCA), I identify a set of recurring configurations of individual dispositions (education, political knowledge…) and political acts (voting, protest…) that define different political styles. Then I examine the distribution of these political styles across racial and ethnic groups. The results reveal three novel findings that were invisible in the previous studies: 1) all groups feature a considerable degree of intra-group difference in political styles; 2) each group retains other political styles that cannot be captured by a single model; and 3) there are commonalities of political styles that cut across racial and ethnic boundaries. Overall, this article presents a model for quantitative analysis of race and ethnicity that simultaneously captures intra-group differences and inter-group commonalities.

Unsettling Histories of the South

This essay argues for re-envisioning southern history with indigenous experiences at its center. It draws on multi-disciplinary sources, including historiography, literary criticism, anthropological studies, and archival materials to show that southern history is far more complex and contradictory than much scholarship has acknowledged and that focusing on the Native South helps lay bare those complexities. Going beyond a call to simply add more Indians to studies of the region, the essay urges a reconceptualization of time, place, and power, such as expanding the temporal frame and grappling with tensions between and among American Indians, African Americans, and others in the South. Despite tremendous advances in the field with respect to analyses of race and gender, a significant blind spot remains with regard to Native American history and the stakes of ignoring it include extending the project of settler colonialism.

Public Opinion of Capital Punishment: An Intersectional Analysis of Race, Gender, and Class Effects

Extant research on the demographic correlates of capital punishment opinion has separately analyzed race, gender, and class. Intersectionality has shown a flaw of this approach is that these characteristics overlap and interact to shape people’s identities and opinions. Using data from the Cumulative File of the General Social Survey (1972–2016), we regressed capital punishment opinion on respondents’ race, gender, and class intersections. Findings show wide variation in opposition to capital punishment. Implications of the findings, including the superiority of the intersectional approach, are discussed.

WITHDRAWN: Jockey injuries during the Siena “Palio”. A 72-year analysis of the oldest horse race in Italy

The Publisher regrets that this article is an accidental duplication of an article that has already been published in Injury, 50(2) 2019 365–368, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2018.12.014. The duplicate article has therefore been withdrawn. The full Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal can be found at https://www.elsevier.com/about/our-business/policies/article-withdrawal.

Comparative transcriptome analyses of oleaginous Botryococcus braunii race A reveal significant differences in gene expression upon cobalt enrichment

BackgroundBotryococcus braunii is known for its high hydrocarbon content, thus making it a strong candidate feedstock for biofuel production. Previous study has revealed that a high cobalt concentration can promote hydrocarbon synthesis and it has little effect on growth of B. braunii cells. However, mechanisms beyond the cobalt enrichment remain unknown. This study seeks to explore the physiological and transcriptional response and the metabolic pathways involved in cobalt-induced hydrocarbon synthesis in algae cells.ResultsGrowth curves were similar at either normal or high cobalt concentration (4.5 mg/L), suggesting the absence of obvious deleterious effects on growth introduced by cobalt. Photosynthesis indicators (decline in Fv/Fm ratio and chlorophyll content) and reactive oxygen species parameters revealed an increase in physiological stress in the high cobalt concentration. Moreover, cobalt enrichment treatment resulted in higher crude hydrocarbon content (51.3% on day 8) compared with the control (43.4% on day 8) throughout the experiment (with 18.2% improvement finally). Through the de novo assembly and functional annotation of the B. braunii race A SAG 807-1 transcriptome, we retrieved 196,276 non-redundant unigenes with an average length of 1086 bp. Of the assembled unigenes, 89,654 (45.7%), 42,209 (21.5%), and 32,318 (16.5%) were found to be associated with at least one KOG, GO, or KEGG ortholog function. In the early treatment (day 2), the most strongly upregulated genes were those involved in the fatty acid biosynthesis and metabolism and oxidative phosphorylation, whereas the most downregulated genes were those involved in carbohydrate metabolism and photosynthesis. Genes that produce terpenoid liquid hydrocarbons were also well identified and annotated, and 21 (or 29.2%) were differentially expressed along the cobalt treatment.ConclusionsBotryococcus braunii SAG 807-1 can tolerate high cobalt concentration and benefit from hydrocarbon accumulation. The time-course expression profiles for fatty acid biosynthesis, metabolism, and TAG assembly were obtained through different approaches but had equally satisfactory results with the redirection of free long-chain fatty acid and VLCFA away from TAG assembly and oxidation. These molecules served as precursors and backbone supply for the fatty acid-derived hydrocarbon accumulation. These findings provide a foundation for exploiting the regulation mechanisms in B. braunii race A for improved photosynthetic production of hydrocarbons.

Differences in pituitary-adrenal reactivity in Black and White men with and without alcohol use disorder

BackgroundTreatment-seeking men with alcohol use disorder (AUD) classically exhibit a blunted hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis response to pharmacologic and behavioral provocations during the early phases of abstinence from alcohol. Independent of alcohol, a significant muting of HPA axis reactivity is also observed among racial minority (e.g. Black) individuals. The effect of AUD upon the altered HPA axis response of racial minority individuals has not been explored. The current work represents a secondary analysis of race and AUD status among a sample of men. MethodsHealthy male controls (17 White, 7 Black) and four-to six-week abstinent men with AUD (49 White, 13 Black) were administered a psychosocial stressor and two pharmacologic probes [ovine corticotropin releasing hormone (oCRH) and cosyntropin] to assess HPA axis reactivity. Plasma cortisol and adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) were assessed at 10–20 min intervals prior to and following behavioral and pharmacological stimulation. Basal and net-integrated responses following provocations were analyzed to identify potential group differences. A measure of childhood adversity was also obtained to consider the implications of prior stressors upon HPA axis function. ResultsA three-fold increase in oCRH-induced ACTH was seen in Black men relative to White men regardless of AUD status. Adversity exerted a dampening effect on this pituitary sensitivity within Black controls only. Adjusted for adversity, a significant blunting effect of AUD status on ACTH reactivity was identified within White participants following oCRH. No group differences were present following cosyntropin administration. In response to the psychosocial stressor, White, but not Black, men with AUD experienced the expected blunting of cortisol reactivity relative to White controls. Rather, Black men with AUD exhibited greater cortisol reactivity relative to White men with AUD. ConclusionsDifferences in HPA axis reactivity associated with race were present in men with and without AUD. Explanatory biological mechanisms of the relationship between alcohol use and/or stress, in both healthy and unhealthy populations, may require a reassessment in different racial populations.

Race and Class: Are They Social Constructs or Ontologically Real and How Are They Related? (A View From the Bottom Up)

This paper is a conceptual analysis of race and class. It begins as a contemplation of my personal life experience with both varying from my white trash emigrant beginnings to my Ivy League education. I then go on to an analytic contemplation of the past meanings of race and class, their present use and usefulness, and the future use and usefulness of these concepts. I argue that social class distinctions are a necessary attribute of any modern Technological Society just as they have always been a necessary aspect of all past civilizations. The only new attribute of class struggle that Technological Society creates is its ability to isolate individuals in the lower classes from any social bonding with others in their class and thus potentially ends class struggle and makes present ruling class ideology permanent thus resulting in the death of history. However, the death of history is not the end of history. I argue that such death may not be a bad thing given the material benefits and power Technological Society creates for humanity's need to explore, discover, and conquer the universe. I argue that race distinctions will continue to be used and be usefulness as a means to maintain class distinctions and as a business model for profit. In modern Technological Society, the humanities act solely as a means for normative power. Distinctions such as race serve both as a means to keep individuals in the lower classes isolated and unable to struggle together and as a means for monetary profit by those humanities holding normative power.

Serious case reviews: The lived experience of Black children

AbstractDespite the many high‐profile Black child deaths in England, race as a factor remains a largely underexplored factor of serious case reviews (SCRs). Evidence from analysis of SCRs indicates that race receives limited attention, or is virtually absent. Given that the main function of SCRs is to provide opportunities for learning lessons to improve practice, the way in which issues of race and culture may influence child protection processes for Black children is therefore of critical importance. In this article, we employ content analysis to examine the extent that race and cultural factors are considered in SCRs involving Black children. It is argued that race is often an important factor influencing Black children's experiences of abuse and neglect, as well as their encounters in the child protection system. This article therefore poses two key questions: (a) What questions are asked about race, ethnicity, and culture in SCRs concerning Black children? (b) How did the SCRs extract lessons to be learnt for improving practice to safeguard Black children? By extending the analysis of race and ethnicity in SCRs, this article furthers our understandings of the needs of Black children in the child protection system.