Amount Of Cognitive Load Research Articles

Effect of sequential tasks in the case studies of business English textbooks on fostering critical thinking based on cognitive load theory

There is a consensus that case studies in Business English class are helpful to foster critical thinking, but little research has been done to explore how case studies facilitate it. To bridge the gap, the present study uses the revised Bloom’s taxonomy as a tool to qualitatively and quantitatively investigate the effect of case studies in Market Leader textbooks on fostering critical thinking based on cognitive load theory. First, the presence of six cognitive levels targeted in the tasks is examined to see how case studies sequence their tasks according to the increase of cognitive complexity. Secondly, the scaffoldings distributed across the sequential tasks are explored to investigate how well they impose appropriate amount of cognitive load on students. Although six cognitive levels are found, there is an inappropriate administration of task scaffolding in a single task or task chain, leading to insufficient or superficial scaffolds and thus inducing high level of cognitive load for students to develop critical thinking. Accordingly, case study writers and teachers are recommended, when designing and adapting sequential tasks, to consider systematic inculcation of cognitive levels among tasks and proper administration of scaffolding with regard to the aspects of task input, conditions, progress and outcome so that a balanced level of cognitive load aligned with the state of working memory capacity of students can be achieved for fostering critical thinking.

Analyzing occupants' control over lighting systems in office settings using immersive virtual environments

Research has identified occupant behavior as one of the key contributors to building energy performance gap. Thus, this study systematically analyzed the impact of having personal control over lighting system on occupants' lighting choices, lighting satisfaction, and task performance in a virtual office setting. For this purpose, 30 participants took part in a 3-phased experiment with immersive virtual environments (IVEs). Each phase of the experiment offered a different degree of control over the lighting. Personality traits were also studied in relation to lighting choices. Finally, a technology acceptance model (TAM) was employed to further investigate the participants’ attitude towards the virtual reality (VR) technology.The findings of this study showed that using an interactive lighting system, which was as satisfactory compared to a conventional lighting system, encouraged the participants to use more natural light. The interactive lighting system imposed the same amount of cognitive load on the participants for performing a reading task as a conventional lighting system, which was significantly lower than their cognitive load scores for performing the task with automated lighting system. Personality analyses demonstrated that the participants with a high score on openness had a wide range of lighting choices either with conventional or with interactive lighting. This study's results differed from the previous studies by highlighting that the participants considered VR as a better fit to an enjoyable experience rather than a useful tool for performing serious tasks.

THE EFFECT OF MODIFIED COGNITIVE LOAD THEORY PROBLEM BASED LEARNING MODELS TO PROBLEM SOLVING ABILITIES

The aim of this study is to determine the effect of the modified Problem Based Learning Model with Cognitive Load Theory to students problem solving abilities. This research was conducted in SMP Negeri 1 Cilegon City in the academic year 2019/2020 with the sample used was class of VII A as an experimental class using CLT-modified PBL models and class of VII E as a control class that gained learning with the usual PBL models. The research method used in this study is a mix methods of the concurrent embedded model with quantitative methods as the primary method and qualitative as a secondary method. The results and discussion of the study showed that the achievement and improvement of the problem solving ability of the experimental class was better than the control class. So it can be concluded that there is a positive influence on CLT modified PBL models on student’s problem solving abilities. In addition, the amount of cognitive load possessed by students while learning can be one of the main factors that can affect student’s problem solving abilities. It is believed that reducing extraneous cognitive load can improve student's problem solving abilities.

Assessing Neural Compensation With Visuospatial Working Memory Load Using Near-Infrared Imaging.

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by the progressive deterioration of cognitive abilities particularly working memory while mild cognitive impairment (MCI) represents its prodrome. It is generally believed that neural compensation is intact in MCI but absent in Alzheimer's disease. This study investigated the effects of increasing task load as a means to induce neural compensation through a novel visual working memory (VSWM) task using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). The bilateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) was explored due to its relevance in VSWM and neural compensation. A total of 31 healthy controls (HC), 12 patients with MCI and 18 patients with mild Alzheimer's disease (mAD) were recruited. Although all groups showed sensitivity in terms of behavioral performance (i.e. score) towards increasing task load (level 1 to 3), only in MCI load effect on cortical response (as measured by fNIRS) was significant. At lower task load, bilateral PFC activation did not differ between MCI and HC. Neural compensation in the form of hyperactivation was only noticeable in MCI with a moderate task load. Lack of hyperactivation in mAD, coupled with significantly poorer task performance across task loads, suggested the inability to compensate due to a greater degree of neurodegeneration. Our findings provided an insight into the interaction of cognitive load theory and neural compensatory mechanisms. The experiment results demonstrated the feasibility of inducing neural compensation with the proposed VSWM task at the right amount of cognitive load. This may provide a promising avenue to develop an effective cognitive training and rehabilitation for dementia population.

Readability Analysis Based on Cognitive Assessment Using Physiological Sensing

For a given individual, the readability of a content determines the amount of cognitive load experienced during the reading. Among many physiological parameters, the brain signals provide direct information about the cognitive load. In this paper, for a silent reading scenario, electroencephalogram (EEG) signal and pupillary response are used to address both global and localized analysis of a content. The global analysis is done using the EEG data collected from a target group of readers on whether the overall content is easy or difficult to understand. The entropy analysis of left temporal brain signals is found to grossly differentiate the texts. Detailed analysis is done using the pupil dilation to localize certain difficult segments in the content. The oscillatory behavior of the pupil dilation reveals detailed characteristics of the effect of the texts on each individual. To carry out the experiment, two types (easy and difficult) of textual contents are considered which are calibrated using standard natural language processing parameters. The proposed work presents a methodology for global and detailed analysis of a content which helps in preparing the reading materials. Furthermore, the methodology provides the insights into the reading characteristics of the individuals.

Low-level sensory processes play a more crucial role than high-level cognitive ones in the size-weight illusion.

The size-weight illusion (SWI) pertains to the experience of perceiving the smaller of two equally weighted objects as heavier. Competing theories to explain the illusion can be generally grouped into cognitive and sensory theories, which place more importance on top-down processing of cognitive expectations and bottom-up processing of sensory information about the size and weight of objects, respectively. The current study examined the relative contribution of these two general explanations. This was done by varying the amounts of cognitive load in a dual-task and the quality of somatosensory feedback by wearing or not wearing gloves. Participants placed their hands through a curtain inside a box so they could not see the test objects. Inside the box, they were presented with either a small or large sphere of varying weights, which they explored manually without vision. Participants provided magnitude estimates about each object’s weight in four experimental conditions (no-load with gloves, no-load without gloves, low-load without gloves, and high-load without gloves). The dual-task involved the visual presentation of a cross on a computer monitor that changed in both colour and orientation. With foot pedals, the participants responded to a target colour and / or orientation, which varied across conditions, while they hefted an object. Some conditions were designed to be more cognitively taxing than others (high-load > low-load > no-load conditions). The results revealed that the strength of the SWI diminished when participants wore the gloves but did not change as cognitive load increased on the dual-task. We conclude that the illusion is more influenced by bottom-up sensory than top-down cognitive processes.

Effects of using a second-screen application on attention, learning, and user experience in an educational content

ABSTRACTUsing a secondary device while viewing a primary device (i.e. TV), or media multitasking, is now common. Numerous researchers and practitioners have attempted to introduce secondary devices into education as a new learning environment providing additional information to the user. However, the learning-related effects of using a second screen remain controversial. This study examined the effects of second-screen-application use on attention, learning performance, and user experience per content relevance for three primary contents (PC; i.e. videos) requiring different amounts of cognitive load: low, medium, and high. Second-screen use reduced learning performance and user satisfaction when the PC required high cognitive load. However, participants exhibited increased learning performance, concentration, and satisfaction with the PC requiring medium-cognitive-load when highly relevant information was presented on the secondary screen simultaneously. Based on these findings, guidelines were suggested for designing a second-screen application without degrading users’ learning and experience.

The design and development of creative instructional materials: the role of domain familiarity for creative solutions

The design and development processes of instructional materials might be considered simple and clear because the pre-established instructional goals can lead the way. However, in practice, there are lots of issues to be considered during these processes. The quality of the material, appropriate visual design, usability, and acceptable amount of cognitive load are some of these issues. On the other hand, an instructional material needs to be as original as possible. In this study, we focused on the creativity of the instructional materials designed and developed by second year students from the Computer Education and Instructional Technologies (CEIT) department. We divided students into two groups: (1) CEIT students designing and developing materials about Information Technology (IT); (2) CEIT students designing and developing materials about Math. The main aim of this study is to understand how CEIT students’ instructional materials differ when they design and develop materials, which are out of their field of experience. In other words, we tried to compare how the creativity of materials change when students create materials with familiar domain (IT) in comparison to unfamiliar domain (Math). Students worked on ten instructional materials such as digital story, animation, and worksheet for 14 weeks. The materials of students were evaluated in terms of creativity, and then they were interviewed. The students worked in groups of 4–5, and during the material development period, we as researchers observed and took notes about the whole process. The findings indicated that materials developed in familiar domain were higher in creativity than those of the unfamiliar. Students’ explanations of creativity and their evaluations about the process helped us to understand the reasons of the produced materials’ creativeness. Technical skills, authentic contributions, material type, and the boundaries of the content or familiarity were found as the primary factors affecting the design and development of creative instructional materials.

Sensitivity evaluation of the visual, tactile, and auditory detection response task method while driving

ABSTRACTObjectives: In this article, we evaluate the sensitivity to cognitive load of 3 versions of the Detection Response Task method (DRT), proposed in ISO Draft Standard DIS-17488.Methods: We present a user study with 30 participants in which we compared the sensitivity to cognitive load of visual, audio, and tactile DRT in a simulated driving environment. The amount of cognitive load was manipulated with secondary n-back tasks at 2 levels of difficulty (0-back and 1-back). We also explored whether the DRT method is least sensitive to cognitive load when the stimuli and secondary task are of the same modality. For this purpose, we used 3 forms to present the n-back task stimuli: visual, audio, and tactile. Responses to the task were always vocal. The experiment was based on a between-subject design (the DRT modalities) with 2 levels of within-subject design study (modalities and difficulty of the secondary n-back tasks). The participants' primary task in the study was to drive safely, and a second priority was to answer to DRT stimuli and perform secondary tasks.Results: The results indicate that all 3 versions of the DRT tested were sensitive to detecting the difference in cognitive load between the reference driving period and driving and engaging in the secondary tasks. Only the visual DRT discriminated between the 0-back and 1-back conditions on mean response time. Contrary to expectations, no interaction was observed between DRT modality and the stimuli modality used for presentation of the secondary tasks.Conclusions: None of the 3 methods of presenting DRT stimuli showed a consistent advantage in sensitivity in differentiating multiple levels of cognitive load if all response times, hit rates, and secondary task performance are considered. If only response time is considered, the visual presentation of the DRT stimulus used in this study showed some advantages. In interpreting these data, it should be noted that the methods of DRT stimulus presentation varied somewhat from the currently proposed draft ISO standard and it is possible that the relative salience level of the visual DRT stimulus influenced the findings. It is further suggested that more than 2 levels of difficulty of the n-back task should be considered for further investigation of the relative sensitivity of different DRT stimuli modalities. Parameters that indicate change in cognitive load (response time, hit rate, task performance) should be analyzed together in assessing the overall impact on the driver and not individually, in order to obtain a fuller insight of the assessed cognitive load.

Effects of expectation congruency on event-related potentials (ERPs) to facial expressions depend on cognitive load during the expectation phase

Previous studies have shown that event-related potentials (ERPs) to facial expressions are modulated by expectation (congruency) and that the ERP effects of expectation congruency are altered by cognitive tasks during the expectation phase. However, it is as yet unknown whether the congruency ERP effects can be modulated by the amount of cognitive load during the expectation phase. To address this question, electroencephalogram (EEG) was acquired when participants viewed fearful and neutral facial expressions. Before the presentation of facial expressions, a cue indicating the expression of a face and subsequently, an expectation interval without any cues were presented. Facial expressions were congruent with the cues in 75% of all trials. During the expectation interval, participants had to solve a cognitive task, in which several letters were presented for target letter detection. The letters were all the same under low load, but differed under high load. Event-related potential (ERP) results showed that the amount of cognitive load during the expectation phase altered the congruency effect in N2 and EPN amplitudes for fearful faces. Congruent as compared to incongruent fearful expressions elicited larger N2 and smaller EPN amplitudes under low load, but these congruency effects were not observed under high load. For neutral faces, a congruency effect in late positive potential (LPP) amplitudes was modulated by cognitive load during the expectation phase. The LPP was more positive for incongruent as compared to congruent faces under low load, but the congruency effect was not evident under high load. The findings indicate that congruency effects on ERPs are modulated by the amount of cognitive load the expectation phase and that this modulation is altered by facial expression.

Reducing the Country-of-Origin Effects: The Presentation of Products Information Activates the Analytic Process

Previous research on country-of-origin effects has examined the composition of product-country images, and how consumers use country of origin as a cue for determining product quality. While considerable research in marketing has shown that country of origin has a great impact on product evaluations and sometimes it would bias consumer’ product beliefs, less work has focused on how products, especially for those coming from countries with a perceived lower quality, can counteract these effects. Our study addresses this issue and provides managers with a proactive, tangible way of reducing the COO effects. COO can be viewed as a stereotype, which consumers use as a shortcut when evaluating products. Theories about stereotype argue that humans tend to reason following two processing styles: heuristic system that is quick, intuitive and effortless and analytic process which is slow, analytical, and deliberate that occasionally corrects the output of automatic process. Researches suggest that automatic process results in stereotypic thoughts being more accessible in memory. Thus the activation of the analytic process is a possible means to reduce COO effects. Yet to date, how to activate the analytic process to counter the COO effects has been neglected in marketing. We propose that the specific kinds of presentation of products information, which may cause information disfluency, can activate the analytic process in order to reduce the COO effects through reducing the intuitive confidence. Note that not all kinds of presentation of product information can reduce the COO effects; even those which bring a large amount of information disfluency to consumers. As information disfluency increases, the cognitive loads, which hinder the activation of analytic process, also increase. To examine the hypotheses, three studies were designed. In study2 and 3, 2 (country of origin: high and low) × 2 (presentation of product information: easy and difficult) between - subject design were adopted. A total of 308 undergraduate students participated in the experiments. CRT test was used to test the activation of analytic process. Trough ANOVA analysis, the first study showed the activation of analytic process contributed in reducing COO. In study 2 and 3, the first and the second experiments suggested that certain presentation of products information reduced COO effects through activating the analytic process. In contrast to past studies, the third experiment suggested that not all kinds of presentation of products information had such reducing effect. Moreover, if the presentation was too complicated, it could not reduce the COO effects for the large amount of cognitive load. The results showed that COO effects can be reduced by the activation of analytic process. Further, our research showed how the presentation of product information can help reduce the COO effects. In addition, although prior research has suggested that there is positive connection between the information disfluency and the activation of analytic process, our research is the first to show that this positive connection dose not always exist. The activation of analytic process could be weakened when there is too much information disfluency.

Aktuelle Trends in der Forschung zu Hypertext- und Hypermediasystemen Diskussion der Beiträge in diesem Themenheft

Summary: Three trends in research on the effectiveness of Hypertext/Hypermediasystems are discussed. (1) There is an increasing use of a capacity view of learning with these systems, allowing for an interpretation of research results based on the amount of cognitive load in learners, yet also making it desirable to differentiate different types of load and to measure cognitive load with more direct methods. (2) More types of learner variables are included in the design of research on the effectiveness of educational environments, leading to a better understanding of the design requirements for different types of aids for learners in these systems. (3) Finally, innovative methods for the collection of behavioral data and for measuring learning outcome are used, which allows for a better understanding of the instructional effectiveness of these media.

Social categorization and fit detection under cognitive load: efficient or effortful?

Participants perceived a discussion between members of two social categories in a name-matching paradigm. Discussions either exhibited inter-category fit, defined as a covariation of category membership and the category members' attitude positions, or not. Orthogonally, there was cognitive load at encoding, load at retrieval, or no concurrent load. Memory for the statements and memory for the speaker of a statement were affected by load with little evidence for fit effects. Conversely, category memory, reconstructive category guessing and perceived fit were affected by inter-category fit with little evidence for load effects. The results suggest that category activation is sensitive to inter-category fit and that fit detection is robust against moderate amounts of cognitive load. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.