Amhara Region Of Ethiopia Research Articles

Proportion of stillbirth and associated factors among women who deliver at public hospitals in Bahir Dar city, north-West Ethiopia

IntroductionThe annual global burden of stillbirths is estimated to be 3.2 million, of which 98% occur in low and middle-income countries (LMICs). In the Amhara region of Ethiopia, the prevalence of stillbirth outcomes was 85 per 1000. Ethiopia is experiencing an increase in the number of health professionals attending deliveries, however, stillbirth rates are not decreasing as anticipated. However, there are limited numbers of studies done related to the proportion of stillbirths and associated factors in the study area. This study aimed to assess the proportion of stillbirths and associated factors among women who attended deliveries at Tibebe Ghion Specialized Hospital and Felege Hiwot Comprehensive Specialized Hospital.MethodsAn institutional-based cross-sectional study was conducted on 366 women who delivered at two referral hospitals in Bahir Dar from April 1, 2020, to August 30, 2020. Study participants were selected using systematic random sampling techniques. A checklist and structured questionnaire were used to retrieve information from the clients and their attendants. The collected data were cleaned, coded, and entered into Epi-data version 3.1 and then exported into SPSS 23 for analysis. Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analysis was computed to identify statistically significant associated factors with a P value < 0.05. The results were presented in tables and charts.ResultThe proportion of stillbirths was 3.8% in this study area. This study showed that level of education, who completed primary school (AOR = 0.12; 95% CI (0.01, 0.98)), not using partograph (AOR = 3.77, 95%; CI (1.02; 13.93)), and obstetric complication (AOR = 6.7; 95% CI (1.54, 29.79) were the major factors affecting the stillbirth.ConclusionOur study found that stillbirth rate remains a major public health problem. Illiteracy, not using a partograph, and having obstetric complications were major associated factors for stillbirth. The risk factors identified in this study can be prevented and managed by providing appropriate care during preconception, antepartum, and intrapartum periods.

Mainstreaming gender equality: A comparative analysis on gender roles of the Awura Amba and the nearby community, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia

This study was undertaken in the Awura Amba community and its neighboring villages, South Gondar Zone in the Amhara Regional State. The Awura Amba community was established in the early 1970s by a few members as a social organization. It is a good instance to be taken as a role model for the fair gender roles adjustment unlike other groups of people in the Amhara Region of Ethiopia. Despite the community being assumed to play an exemplary role in gender equality, due emphasis has not yet been paid to study the questions of how this community is able to achieve it, and how it interacts with the surrounding community to share its good experiences. Thus, this comparative study aimed to examine gender equality and the division of gender-based roles in Awura Amba and its surrounding community. The study employed an explanatory mixed-research method. The data were collected through a survey questionnaire from 170 respondents, focus group discussions (FGDs), and key informant interviews. As the study relied on qualitative and quantitative strands, it used both probability and non-probability sampling techniques. The quantitative data were analyzed through descriptive and inferential statistics while the qualitative data were thematically analyzed to substantiate the quantitative findings. The result shows that the Awura Amba community has better awareness and concern about gender equality and mainstreaming as compared to its surrounding community. The study also found that the Awura Amba community is unsuccessful in sharing its learnable pro-gender experiences with the adjacent neighboring community on the one hand, and in learning some important cultural practices and values from their neighbors on the other. This study suggests that the concerned bodies have to design strategies that would help the two communities to know each other sufficiently, and to create a stage for experience sharing. Besides, the local government of Fogrea Woreda should work hard so as to make the values of this community acceptable to the grass-root surrounding community instead of being very politicizing to outsiders. Above all, national, regional and local level gender mainstreaming programs should focus on strategic gender needs that are capable of changing the gender power relations.

Socioeconomic impacts of solar home systems in rural Ethiopia

Off grid solar electrification of remote, rural communities that are difficult to reach cost-effectively through grid extension is a core component of Ethiopia’s energy access strategy. One emerging business model in such locations, which aims to maintain affordability and access for customers with severe liquidity constraints, is the Pay-as-you-go (PAYGO) approach to solar home system (SHS) sales. This study focuses on the socioeconomic impacts of PAYGO SHS that are currently being marketed by a private supplier in the Amhara region of Ethiopia. The study employs descriptive and propensity score matching analysis to examine a range of impacts on those adopting this technology. The use of PAYGO SHS is shown to have no discernible impact on household income, but it does reduce monthly energy expenditure. Use of a PAYGO SHS also allows school-aged children to extend their study hours into the night, improves the self-reported health of family members, allows women to re-allocate their time across various activities, and enhances perceived safety and security. The role of SHS in financial inclusion and access to information is also discussed. Achieving wider dissemination of SHS to target populations will require more appropriate and effective intervention and marketing effort.

Revitalizing community forestry in the Amhara Region of Ethiopia: A property right perspective

Severe deforestation, land degradation, and the lack of forest products in Ethiopia have necessitated the implementation of a community forestry program since the 1980s by mobilizing the local communities. However, there have been incidents indicating that many of the community forests are either degrading or remaining unproductive. While community forests are, in principle, the collective property of the local community, empirical evidence concerning how property rights impact their management and their role in enhancing rural livelihoods and environmental rehabilitation is lacking. This study aims to investigate the performance of community forestry through the lens of property rights and tenure security, in order to uncover the challenges impeding community forestry in Ethiopia, with a focus on community forests in the Amhara Region. The study gathered primary data on community forest management from two community forests located in East Gojam and North Wollo, using questionnaires, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and field observations. Additionally, secondary data on legal frameworks were collected from institutions involved in community forestry. The data analysis employed descriptive statistics and thematic analysis. The findings of the study revealed that a majority of respondents (91%) lacked clarity regarding the objectives of establishing community forests, and about 95% claimed that community forests belong to the state. These incidents have led to diminished interest in continuing the program. The study highlighted that the community forestry program suffers from inadequate policy and legal provisions, chronic institutional instability, overlapping mandates, and limited community engagement. These factors have weakened property rights, which are reflected in tenure insecurity and the absence of individual household benefit packages. Consequently, it can be concluded that community forest interventions have been promoted based on general belief in the importance of trees for rural livelihoods and ecosystem rehabilitation, rather than as part of a deliberate and directed policy and strategy. In summary, revitalizing community forestry in Ethiopia necessitates a thorough understanding of property rights and tenure security issues. In this regard, it is imperative for government agencies to enact a clear national strategy for community forestry development and adopt a supportive role to enable communities to establish robust community forestry institutions to safeguard their rights while fostering community forestry and environmental protection activities.

Farm forests, seasonal hunger, and biomass poverty: Evidence of induced intensification from panel data in the Ethiopian Highlands

Seasonal hunger is the most common food insecurity experience for millions of small dryland farmers. This study tests the relationships between food insecurity, farm forests, and biomass poverty using a longitudinal dataset from the Amhara region of Ethiopia. These data form part of the Ethiopia Socioeconomic Survey, which collected panel data over three survey rounds from 530 households between 2011 and 2016. This dataset represents a collection of unique socioeconomic, wellbeing, and micro-land use measures, including farm forests. Hierarchical mixed effect regression models assessed the relationship between food insecurity and farm forests as well as the conditional effects of biomass poverty among the poorest farmers and women-headed households. Over a six-year study period, farmers reported increased stress from smaller land holdings, higher prices, and climate-related shocks. A clear trend towards spontaneous dispersed afforestation is observed by both researchers and satellite remote sensing. Model results indicate, dedicating approximately 10% of farm area to forest reduces months of food insecurity by half. The greatest reductions in food insecurity from farm forests are reported by ultra-poor and crop residue-burning households, suggesting that biomass poverty may be a major constraint to resilient food security on these farms. This research provides novel quantitative evidence of induced intensification and food security impacts of farm management preserving and building stores of biomass value as green assets. The results reported here have important implications for nature-based solutions as a major strategy to achieve sustainable development in some contexts.

Adherence to Self - Care Practice Among Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients Using the Theory of Planned Behavior and Health Belief Model at Comprehensive Specialized Hospitals of Amhara Region, Ethiopia: Mixed Method.

Diabetes mellitus is one of the major public health problems that requires appropriate self-care practices to reduce complications. The current study assessed adherence to self-care practices and associated factors using the theory of planned behavior and the health belief model among type 2 diabetes mellitus patients. A facility-based, sequential explanatory mixed-method was undertaken at comprehensive specialized hospitals in the Amhara region of Ethiopia. A single population proportion formula was used to calculate sample size. Proportional allocation to the three study settings and systematic random sampling techniques were used to select 846 study participants. Logistic regression analysis was used to identify associated factors. Variables with a P-value less than 0.05 were declared statistically significant. For the qualitative study, purposive sampling was used to select sixteen key informants, and thematic analysis was performed. About 42.4% of the study participants had good adherence to self-care practices. Being a member of a diabetes association (AOR = 2.57, 95% CI: 1.51, 4.38), having a home glucometer (AOR = 2.52, 95% CI: 1.59, 4.02), having good glycemic control (AOR = 4.07, 95% CI: 2.53, 6.53), having low perceived barriers (AOR = 8.65, 95% CI: 4.65, 16.07), and having middle perceived barriers (AOR = 3.26, 95% CI: 1.88, 5.66) were significantly associated with good adherence to self-care practice. On the other hand, poor wealth index (AOR = 0.27, 95% CI: 0.16, 0.46), poor behavioral control (AOR = 0.59, 95% CI: 0.36, 0.97), poor behavioral intention (AOR = 0.36, 95% CI: 0.21, 0.64), low perceived benefits (AOR = 0.20, 95% CI: 0.08, 0.51), and middle perceived benefits (AOR = 0.57, 95% CI: 0.31, 0.83) were significantly associated with poor adherence to self-care practice. The key informants explored the influence of patients' beliefs, self-efficacy, social support, and barriers on their self-care practices. Less than half of type 2 diabetes mellitus patients had good adherence to self-care practices. This was more evident for patients who are members of a diabetes association, having a high wealth index, having a home glucometer, good behavioral control, good behavioral intentions, high perceived benefit, and poor perceived barriers. Appropriate intervention should be designed based on the aforementioned factors.

Determinants of podoconiosis among residents of Machakle District East Gojjam Zone Amhara Region Ethiopia.

Podoconiosis (endemic non-filarial elephantiasis) is a chronic disease characterized by the development of persistent swelling of plantar foot initially; which progresses to the dorsal foot and lower leg slowly or in a number of acute episodes to reach the knee. About 4 million people are said to be affected by the disease worldwide and it is deemed a serious public health problem in at least 10 African countries including Ethiopia. Therefore this study aimed to identify the determinants of podoconiosis among residence in Machakel district. Unmatched case control study design was conducted at Machakel district from August 30 to September 30, 2022. The sample size calculated using Epi-info software yielded 211 controls and 106 cases (317 study participants). Simple random sampling technique was used to select the cases using registration books of the district. Data were entered to Epi info version 7 and exported to SPSS version 22 for statistical analysis. Binary logistic regression was used to identify explanatory variables. A total of 312 study participants (104 cases and 208 controls) were included giving a response rate of 98.42%. Bare foot (AOR, 5.83 [95% CI: 2.34-14.50]), female sex (AOR, 4.25 [95% CI: 2.22-8.14]), family history of podoconiosis (AOR: 3.01(95% CI: 1.41-6.42) and age group 41-60 (AOR: 5.05(95% CI: 2.35-10.83), and 61-80 AOR 15.74 95% CI: (5.56-44.55) were determinants of Podoconiosis. Barefoot, sex, family history of podoconiosis and age were determinants of Podoconiosis. District health office should encourage at risk populations especially older people and individuals with family history of podoconiosis about shoe wearing practice all the time and not to expose their skin and feet.

Herd health and reproductive management associated with lamb weight gain and mortality in sub-Saharan drylands—a case from Ethiopia

Sheep are important for food and livelihood security in sub-Saharan Africa, and maximizing lamb weight gain while minimizing mortality is essential to improve production. Using the Menz sheep breeding villages of Amhara region in Ethiopia as a case study, the weight gain and mortality rate of 208 lambs were monitored during their first 5 months of life. The study was conducted in intervention and control villages, where the intervention villages were part of community-based breeding programmes and had participated in various projects aiming to improve sheep production and management. Multivariable linear regression analysis was conducted to detect associations between weight gain from birth to 1 month, and birth to 5 months, and different lamb and ewe characteristics, farmer education, application of management routines, and presence of village level sheep management interventions. In general, lambs from intervention villages, without certain signs of diseases, whose mothers were 2 years or older, had a body condition score of more than 2 on a 5-point scale, and who originated from flocks where disease prevention strategies had been implemented, had gained more weight. Overall lamb mortality was 6.8% with most deaths occurring before 1 month of age. This study highlights that health interventions in ewes improve lamb survival and weight gain and that the care of lambs during the first month of life is crucial for overall herd productivity.

Trend, determinants, and future prospect of child marriage in the Amhara region, Ethiopia: a multivariate decomposition analysis.

Child marriage is a harmful traditional practice, which compromises children of their childhood and threatens their lives and health. In Ethiopia, 58% of women and 9% of men get married before the age of 18 years. Surprisingly, parents in the Amhara region make marriage promises of their children before they are even born, which will hinder the region from attaining the Sustainable Development Goal of ending child marriage. Thus, this study aimed to assess the trends, determinants, and future prospects of child marriage in the Amhara region of Ethiopia. A repeated cross-sectional study was conducted using four consecutive nationally representative Ethiopian demographic and health surveys (2000-2016). A logit-based multivariate decomposition analysis for a non-linear response model was fitted to identify factors that contributed to the change in child marriage over time. Statistical significance was declared at a p-value of < 0.05. The child marriage practice in the Amhara region by the year 2030 was also predicted using different forecasting features of Excel. The trend of child marriage over the study period (2000-2016) decreased from 79.9% (76.7, 82.8) to 42.9% (39.1, 46.9), with an annual average reduction rate of 2.9%. Approximately 35.2% of the decline resulted from an increase in the proportion of women who attained secondary and above-secondary education over the two surveys. A decrease in the proportion of rural women and a change in the behavior of educated and media-exposed women also contributed significantly to the decline in child marriage. The prevalence of child marriage in the Amhara region by the year 2030 was also predicted to be 10.1% or 8.8%. Though there has been a significant decline in child marriage in the Amhara region over the past 16 years, the proportion is still high, and the region is not going to eliminate it by 2030. Education, residence, and media exposure were all factors associated with the observed change in child marriage in this study. Therefore, additional efforts will be required if child marriage is to be eliminated by 2030, and investing more in education and media access will hasten the region's progress in this direction.

Risk Factors for Blindness and Partial Blindness in the Amhara Region of Ethiopia: Spatial and Regression Analyses

Seeing difficulties like blindness and partial blindness are affected by a number of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The objective of this study is to evaluate whether seeing difficulties are associated with extrinsic (external) factors like environmental, educational, and socioeconomic status of people.

Managerial values and corporate social responsibility practices: multilevel and multistakeholder analysis

PurposeThis study aims to posit that managerial value would be one of the responsible factors for the difference in corporate social responsibility practice among businesses. It then empirically tested the effect of managerial value, with the moderation of organizational culture, on corporate social responsibility practice.Design/methodology/approachThe authors have devised a “moderated micro-macro model” type of multilevel model, wherein managerial value took the micro (individual level) predictor variable role, stakeholder-based corporate social responsibility practice the macro (organizational level) outcome variable role and organizational culture the macro level moderating variable role. Because they need the attention of inquiry, large manufacturing firms in the Amhara region of Ethiopia, with a sample size of 53, constituted the organizational level units. The recent performance of the firms against corporate social responsibility practice and organizational culture have been judged by 473 randomly chosen employees. Managerial value has been rated by randomly picked managers, numbered 253. Analytically, Croon and van Veldhoven’s multilevel analytical package and Mplus software suited the designed model.FindingsThe study has revealed that managerial value, indeed, is a potential positive driver of CSR practice, the two managerial value dimensions demonstrated differential effects on corporate social responsibility practice and only one of the organizational culture dimensions, hierarchical culture, played a moderation role in managerial value – corporate social responsibility practice link.Originality/valueThe model and this empirical test have not been previously verified.

Wasting and its associated factors among children aged from 6 to 59 months in Debre Tabor town, Amhara region of Ethiopia, 2019: a multicentre community-based cross-sectional study

ObjectivesWasting is acute malnutrition that has harmful short-term consequences for children and is determined by an inadequate diet. This study aimed to assess the prevalence and associated factors of wasting...

Rural household food security status and its determinants in Libokemkem woreda of the Amhara region, North Western Ethiopia

The study analyses the household food security situation in Libokemkem woreda of the Amhara region in Ethiopia using 285 randomly selected sample households. The Household Calorie Acquisition (HCA) is used to measure the diet quantity aspect of food insecurity, and 225 kg/year/AE is used as a food security threshold. The Household Diet Diversity Score (HHDDS) is used to measure the diet quality aspect of food insecurity, and consuming four food groups is used as a food security line. Approximately 83 per cent of the total households achieved minimum food security status in terms of diet quantity, and 64 per cent were food secure in terms of diet quality. Determinants of food security in terms of diet quantity and quality were analysed using Tobit and logit regression models, respectively. Sex, family size, farm size, number of oxen, expenditure on agricultural technology, agroecology zone and distance from market centre are statistically significant determinants of food security in terms of diet quantity. On the other hand, sex, education status, off-farming activities, livestock ownership and agroecology zone are statistically significant determinants of food security in terms of diet quality or diversity. The study suggested the urgency of human capital development, increasing the production and productivity of major cereal crops, and promoting labour-intensive rural employment opportunities to break the vicious circle of poverty and food insecurity. It also suggested the promotion of soil and water conservation, livestock rearing and the use of organic fertiliser in highland areas, while mechanised farming for major crops such as rice, onion, chickpea, tomato and garlic is recommended for midland areas.

Determination of the Levels of Selected Heavy Metals in Finger Millet (Eleusine coracana) Flour in West Gojjam Zone, Amhara Region

Background: Finger millet is a native and indigenous food crop in Ethiopia and has been cultivated in different parts of the country for centuries. However, its heavy metal contents in other parts of Ethiopia were not well studied, especially in the study area. The study was conducted in the Mankussa and Finoteselam district of the western Gojjam zone, Amhara region Ethiopia, to determine the heavy metal (Mn, Fe, Zn, Cu and Pb) levels of finger millet by using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy. Methods: A wet digestion procedure was developed using a mixture of HCl, HNO3 and H2O2 to decompose a mixed powdered finger millet sample. Result: Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn and Pb mean levels were 3.751, 1.699, 0.072, 0.4485 and 0.024 mg/L, respectively, in Mankussa Black finger millet samples. In Mankussa mixed finger millet, the mean metal levels were 3.573 mg/L, 2.7585 mg/L, 0.0585 mg/L, 0.799 mg/L and 0.024 mg/L for Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn and Pb, respectively and the mean metal levels of Mankussa White Finger millet were found to be 2.326, 2.289, 0.045, 0.5985 and 0.014 mg/L of Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn and Pb respectively. While the mean metal level of Finoteselam black Finger millet samples was found to be 5.651 mg/L, 2.1955 mg/L, 0.0435 mg/L, 0.744 mg/L and 0.011 mg/L for Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn and Pb respectively, in the mixed finger millet it was 3.023 mg/L, 2.155 mg/L, 0.0525 mg/L,1.259 mg/L of Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn. In white finger millet, it was found to be 2.8695 mg/L, 1.412 mg/L, 0.0525 mg/L and 1.0735 mg/L of Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn. Pb was not detected by the instrument in Finoteselam mixed and white finger millet samples. The metal levels investigated in this study were comparable with international standards.

Analysis of the existing rural land legislations in regulating interests on land in the Amhara region, Ethiopia

For decades, the absence of land policies has contributed to land degradation in developing countries. The Amhara region of Ethiopia has formulated legislation and registered land. This study examined the impacts of legislation on regulating land rights and restrictions. The study highlights that the legislation has provided landholders with opportunities to secure land rights. However, the study revealed that the existing legislation has gaps in regulating restrictions and responsibilities and lacks land policy; as a result, weak land governance has ensued in the region. To mitigate these problems, the government should formulate a land policy, spatial framework and strengthen land institutions.

Assessment of Undernutrition and Its Influencing Factors among Prisoners Living with HIV/AIDS in North Shoa Zone Amhara Region Ethiopia, 2022

Assessment of Undernutrition and Its Influencing Factors among Prisoners Living with HIV/AIDS in North Shoa Zone Amhara Region Ethiopia, 2022

In vitro anti-plasmodial activity of three selected medicinal plants that are used in local traditional medicine in Amhara region of Ethiopia

BackgroundThe plants Aloe weloensis, Lepidium sativum, and Lobelia gibberoa have been used in Ethiopian folklore medicine to treat various diseases including malaria.MethodThe in vitro anti-plasmodial activity of the three crude extracts was evaluated using parasite lactate dehydrogenase assay against the chloroquine (CQ)-sensitive D10 and the chloroquine (CQ)-resistant W2 strains.ResultThe methanolic extract of L. gibberoa roots showed the highest in vitro anti-plasmodial effect against both D10 and W2 Plasmodium falciparum strains with IC50 value of 103.83 ± 26.17 µg/mL and 47.11 ± 12.46 µg/mL, respectively. However, the methanolic extract of L. sativum seeds and the leaf latex of A. weloensis were not active with an IC50 value > 200 µg/mL against both D10 and W2 strains.ConclusionThe methanolic extract of L. gibberoa roots showed a promising in vitro anti-plasmodial activity against the CQ-sensitive (D10) and CQ-resistant (W2) strains of P. falciparum. Thus, the anti-plasmodial activity of this plant partly justifies and may also support the traditional use against malaria. However, the methanolic extract of L. sativum seeds and the leaf latex of A. weloensis did not exert suppressive activity on the growth of P. falciparum strains.

Taking high-stakes venture to make ends meet? Determinants and impacts of international migration of Ethiopians to the Middle East

Ethiopia is one of the major origins for international migrants to the Middle East in Africa regardless of the risks and the abuses that migrants face. The study aims to analyse the determinants of international migration of Ethiopians to the Middle East and its impact on the income of households staying behind particularly in the Dessie Zuria district of the Amhara region in Ethiopia. Data were randomly collected from 346 households and analysed using descriptive statistics, logit regression, and Propensity Score Matching (PSM) models. The logit regression analysis indicates that bigger family size, network with migrants/returnees, and the presence of peer/family pressure influence the probability of international migration positively. On the contrary, being a male household head, ownership of larger farmland and livestock, and participation in additional non-farm activities determine international migration negatively. The findings from the PSM model revealed that international migration increased the annual income of migrant-sending households by 13,079.51 ETB per year over non-migrant sending households. However, the benefits enjoyed by the families staying behind have been at the expense of migrants, whose income is hard-earned and they often take a risky route to reach the destination regions. The findings call for an integrated policy approach to control population pressure that depletes the key financial and physical assets of households in the origin and thus forces individuals to look for alternative livelihood strategies such as migration. Location-specific policy interventions are needed to create non-farm and alternative livelihoods, improve agricultural productivity, and access information to reduce exaggerated and misleading information about the destination areas.

Dietary Perspectives and Practices during Pregnancy in Rural Amhara Region of Ethiopia: An Exploratory Qualitative Study

BackgroundNutrition during pregnancy has lifelong impacts on the mother and fetus. In Ethiopia, nearly a third of pregnant women experience undernutrition. When designing nutrition interventions during pregnancy, it is important to understand existing dietary perspectives and practices in local communities. ObjectivesTo explore the processes that shape dietary perspectives and practices during pregnancy in rural West Gojjam and South Gondar Zones of the Amhara region in Ethiopia. MethodsFrom October to November 2018, we conducted 40 in-depth interviews with pregnant women (n = 16), family members (n = 12), and healthcare providers (n = 12) using a semistructured interview guide. Interviews were conducted in Amharic, transcribed in Amharic, and translated into English. We used a thematic analysis approach to organize data per the predefined topic areas and identify emerging themes, as well as barriers and enablers to healthy nutrition during pregnancy. ResultsPregnant women and their family members recognized the benefits of a diversified diet to promote the health of the mother and the fetus. However, participants reported low dietary diversity because of limited access to nutritious foods and particular perspectives on food restrictions during pregnancy. The common practice of religious fasting also limited pregnant women’s dietary intake. Women reported restricting their food intake in later pregnancy because of loss of appetite, as well as concerns about having a large infant, which might complicate delivery. Intake of locally made alcoholic drinks (Tella) was reported among pregnant women because participants thought it had low levels of alcohol that would not harm the fetus. ConclusionsAlthough participants understood the importance of a healthy and diverse diet in pregnancy, we identified several barriers and perspectives regarding nutrition during pregnancy. Low income and lack of access to diverse foods, particularly in certain seasons, religious fasting, intentional food restrictions to limit the size of the infant, and alcohol use were commonly reported. Locally appropriate counseling and interventions should be developed, with an emphasis on increasing access to and consumption of diverse foods.

Risk Aversion and Perception of Farmers about Endogenous Risks: An Empirical Study for Maize Producers in Awi Zone, Amhara Region of Ethiopia

Agriculture is a risky business that is subject to endogenous risks. Endogenous risks caused by input utilization, input affordability and input availability may prove detrimental to the production potential of farmers. The study was aimed at examining the risk perception, risk aversion and risk management strategies of maize producers in Awi zone, which is found in the northwest part of Ethiopia. The study involved 343 respondents who produced maize under risk. Descriptive statistics, a seven-point Likert scale, the observed economic behaviour method, factor analysis and a seemingly unrelated regression model were used to process the data. The results showed that farmers have different perceptions of the endogenous risk associated with input availability and input affordability which has a different probability of occurrence and severity of damage. The observed economic behaviour method showed that farmers in the area also have different risk aversion behaviours: about 7.29% of the respondents in the study area have high risk aversion attitudes, while about 30.61% have medium risk aversion attitudes and 62.10% of them have low risk aversion attitudes. The seemingly unrelated regression model output showed that farmers’ economic, social, demographic and institutional factors, as well as their risk behaviour, determine the risk management strategies that they employ. Maize farmers in the area applied human risk management strategies, production risk management strategies, diversification, financial risk management strategies and marketing risk management strategies to tackle the endogenous risks in the area. It was deduced that maize farmers have a risk averse behaviour even if their risk aversion levels differ based on the scope of the management strategies that they employ to combat risk. Following the finding of the study, a holistic approach to risk management that encompasses all actors, such as farmers, researchers, extension services and financial institutions should be involved to make the appropriate interventions.