Atmospheric Water Vapor Research Articles

Significant Increase in African Water Vapor over 2001–2020

Atmospheric water vapor is not only a key element of the global hydrological cycle but also the most abundant greenhouse gas. The phase transition and transportation of water vapor are essential for maintaining global energy balance and regulating hydrological processes. However, due to insufficient meteorological observational data, climate research in Africa faces significant limitations despite its substantial contribution to changes in global precipitable water vapor (PWV). In this study, we used MODIS near-infrared (NIR) PWV products and Berkeley temperature data to depict the spatial–temporal variability in PWV across Africa from 2001 to 2020. The results reveal a significant increasing trend in PWV over Africa, with an increase of 0.0158 cm/year. Nearly 99.96% of Africa shows an increase in PWV, with 88.95% of these areas experiencing statistically significant changes, particularly in central regions of Africa. The increase in PWV is more pronounced in high-value months compared to low-value months. The equatorial region of the Congo Basin exhibits higher PWV, which gradually decreases as latitude increases. Despite significant warming (0.0162 °C/year) in Africa, there is no consistent positive correlation between temperature and water vapor. A positive relationship between PWV and temperature is observed in western Africa, while a negative relationship is noted in eastern and southern Africa on an annual scale. Additionally, an increasing trend in precipitation (4.6669 mm/year) is observed, with a significant positive correlation between PWV and precipitation across most of Africa, although this relationship varies by month. These findings provide valuable insights into the comprehension of the hydrothermal variation in Africa amidst climate warming.

Most of the Long-Term Solar Radiation Forcing on the Climate Is Due to the Strong Feedback Mechanisms

The main interactions of the Total Solar Irradiance (TSI) variations with the climatic system are considered. This research introduced new physically based indexes for 11-year cycles: the integral relative energetic power of the cycles solar activity (SA) and TSI, as well as the cycle-weighted mean value both of the TSI and sunspot number. The observed cycle-average TSI value in cycles XXII–XXIV has decreased by more than 0.5 W/m2, indicating its quasi-bicentennial decline. The onset of the Maunder-type Grand minimum phase of the SA and TSI of the quasi-bicentennial cycle (BCC) is expected in the 27th or 28th 11-year cycle in 2042 or 2053. The Earth's thermal inertia will cause a temperature reduction of around 0.25 K due to the deficit in TSI during the declining phase of the bicentennial cycle due to its negative impact on Earth's energy imbalance. As a result, the Bond's albedo will increase, and the abundance of atmospheric water vapor and carbon dioxide will decrease as a response to a direct solar forcing. BCC feedback mechanisms will also continue operating during both its minimum and maximum phases. The feedback mechanisms will continue further in short periods (about 30 years) at the beginning of BCC's growth and decline phases. These long-term self-reinforcing feedback effects will act as a response to the TSI, forcing in such a way as to trigger a strong amplification of the initial direct input to the corresponding temperature changes. They will lead to a significant increasing cooling in 2070 or 2080. Variations of the galactic cosmic rays and cloud cover practically do not affect the climate. The quasi-bicentennial cyclicity of the TSI also provides simultaneous climate variations on all Solar system planets.

Trends in atmospheric water vapour over the Thar Desert during Indian Summer Monsoon period of 2003-2020.

The Thar is the most densely populated desert in the world, which supports diverse ecosystems and human endeavours such as agriculture and socioeconomic activities. Water demand and supply in the Thar play an essential role in regulating the socioeconomic activities of the region. Inland water and precipitation aid the movement of water in the Thar Desert. Precipitation in the Thar is governed by the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM), during which the winds distribute water vapour to regulate precipitation across the region. Therefore, we analyse the water vapour, its sources and its relation with precipitation using satellite measurements and reanalysis data in the Thar during ISM. Like other regions, a clear seasonal cycle of water vapour is observed in the Thar, with very high values (> 45 kg/m2) during ISM and low in winter (< 15 kg/m2). Evapotranspiration and moisture transport have significant effects on the amount of water vapour during ISM. There is a significant increase in water vapour in the troposphere, with high trends at the surface (0.032 g/kg/year) and small at the tropopause (0.00002 g/kg/year). A significant increase in column water vapour is also estimated in the Thar during ISM, with high trends in the eastern and southern areas, at about 0.15-0.35 kg/m2/year. The rise in water vapour in the Thar can be attributed to the increase in evapotranspiration (0.03-0.07 mm/day/year) and water vapour transport (> 0.5 kg/m/s/year) from the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean. The rise in water vapour can lead to an increase in precipitation in the Thar, as it shows significant positive trends (0.05-0.1 mm/day/year) in the eastern areas during ISM. The increase in precipitation and water vapour in the arid Thar Desert can have significant implications for the regional environment and agriculture.

High-performance photocatalytic reduction of CO2 to CO by defective g-C3N4/CeO2 under sacrificial agent-free conditions☆

Solar energy can be used to convert CO2 into valuable chemical compounds. However, the low activity of photocatalysts has hindered their development. By using defective g-C3N4/CeO2 heterojunctions, CO2 was successfully photo-reduced with high performance under ambient water vapor conditions without adding additives. g-C3N4 in this system has a significant impact on CO2 conversion efficiency, with 5 wt% g-C3N4/CeO2 exhibiting competitive performance, achieving 45.66 μmol/g CO in 6 h with nearly 100% selectivity. Photoactivity is attributed to the formation of g-C3N4/CeO2 heterojunctions, which provide excellent electron transport and electron-hole separation. Additionally, light enhances the CO2 adsorption capacity of the catalyst, thereby improving reaction properties. The photogenerated electrons generated under light excitation can quickly gather at the surface and defective parts of the sample, facilitating effective CO2 adsorption and promoting the formation of *COOH, thus promoting the photoreduction process of CO2. Cycle tests also demonstrate long-term stability. Highly efficient charge separation and reduced free energy of CO2 reduction both promote CO2 conversion performance. This work can provide an important idea for designing CeO2-based CO2 photocatalysts.

Disparities and similarities in the spatiotemporal dynamics of flash and slow droughts in China

Climate warming has induced significant transitions from slowly-developing droughts to rapidly-developing flash droughts in China, causing broad impacts on ecosystems, hydrological regimes, and society. To date, most studies focused on temporal evolution of flash droughts, while neglected the spatial expansion which is essential for understanding their origins and spatial propagations, especially for mega flash droughts. Based on the long-term (1940–2022) dataset of the 5th generation of the European ReAnalysis, here we use a three-dimensional drought identification method to analyze the disparities and similarities in the spatiotemporal dynamics of flash and slow droughts at the subseasonal time scale over China. Although half of the flash and slow droughts are characterized by small areas (<5000 km2), short durations (30–45 d) and short propagation distances of drought centroids (<50 km), the probability of large-scale (>30 000 km2) flash droughts with long propagation distances (>100 km) is twice of slow droughts. Moreover, global and local spatial autocorrelation analyses reveal that South China (SC) and North China are hotspots for large-scale flash and slow droughts, respectively, and they both show significant increasing trends (0.11–0.12 events/decade) during 1940–2022. Without these large-scale droughts, there is no obvious difference in spatial distributions of the frequency of flash and slow droughts. Despite disparities, both large-scale flash and slow droughts show a preferential westward propagation, with 60%–67% of the movements consistent with the pathways of atmospheric water vapor flux anomaly. Our study urges the understanding and prevention of large-scale flash drought events, especially in SC.

Comparative analysis of precipitable water vapour data in the Tarim Basin, China

Atmospheric water vapour is an important contributor to global energy and water cycles and its detection is necessary for precipitation forecasting and climate change research. To explore the applicability of reanalysis data for determining precipitable water vapour (PWV) content in the Tarim Basin, China, this study compared the reliability of two reanalysis PWV products, ERA-5 (PWERA) and MERRA-2 (PWMER), using data from four ground-based global navigation satellite system stations representing basin ecosystems (Oasis, Gobi Desert, Central Desert, and Alpine; dataset: PWGNSS) as reference values. We conducted correlation analysis between PWGNSS and both reanalysis PWV products at different time scales to verify the products’ accuracy. The results showed that the reanalysis PWV products were mostly overestimated at the Desert station, while they were mostly underestimated at the Oasis station. The applicability of PWERA and PWMER varied by season and location, with better applicability at the Oasis station from spring to autumn. The applicability of reanalysis PWV products was lower during precipitation periods than during non-precipitation, and varied by location. During non-precipitation situation, the PWMER had better applicability at the Oasis station and at the Central Desert station when the PWGNSS exceeded 25 mm. Meanwhile, PWERA had better applicability in precipitation situation at the Gobi Desert station from April to June and at Oasis station from August to September when PWGNSS was above 30 mm, at the Central Desert station from May to August, and when the PWGNSS exceeded 30 mm.

Integrating the controlled evaporation mixer with cavity ring-down spectroscopy for enhanced water vapor isotope calibration

Accurate measurement of water vapor isotopes (δ18O and δ2H) is fundamental for advancing our understanding of the hydrological cycle and improving hydrological model accuracy. This study introduces an innovative calibration methodology using a controlled evaporation mixer (CEM) for determining stable isotopic ratios in atmospheric water vapor via cavity ring-down spectroscopy. The CEM technique reliably produces a stable water vapor stream, crucial for enhancing the precision and accuracy of isotopic measurements. Its rapid adaptation to changes in water vapor concentration and compatibility with different water standards enhance calibration reliability. Demonstrated reproducibility in generating water vapor across a broad concentration range from 900 to over 25,000 ppmv, coupled with a substantial reduction in memory effects, makes this approach highly effective in both laboratory and field settings. This calibration advancement greatly enhances research capabilities for continuous atmospheric water vapor analysis, providing deeper insights into hydrological processes and atmospheric dynamics.

Climatology and trends of atmospheric water vapour transport in New Zealand

Atmospheric moisture transport is crucial for understanding New Zealand’s climate dynamics, particularly with respect to extreme precipitation events. While the majority of previous studies have focussed on Atmospheric Rivers (ARs), this study examines the entire spectrum of water vapour transport and its link to extreme precipitation using 40 years (1981–2020) of Integrated Water Vapour Transport (IVT) data over the region. Although ARs are important drivers of extreme precipitation, they are infrequent as they account for less than 10% of total moisture transport at most coastal locations. Extreme water vapour transport (defined by the 90th percentile IVT threshold) corresponds more closely with precipitation extremes than ARs alone, even using an expanded AR detection range. Here, IVT is classified into strength categories from weak to strong. Over the study period, all but the weakest category of IVT has increased in frequency of occurrence over most of the South Island, while decreasing in northern North Island. Similarly, monthly IVT anomaly trends show a positive trend in the South Island and negative trend in the northern North Island during warmer months. Separate analysis of moisture weighted wind speeds (UV) and total column water vapour (TCWV) revealed that even though the dynamic component of IVT has decreased in many locations, the increase in TCWV across New Zealand is the driving factor underpinning the IVT trends. Correspondingly, these findings indicate the importance of analysis both dynamic and thermodynamic factors in seeking to understand hydrometeorological variation and when investigating the responses to climate change.

The role of regional water vapor dynamics in creating precipitation extremes

While sub-daily precipitation extremes cause flash flooding and pose risk to life, longer precipitation extremes threaten infrastructure such as water supply dams. Frequent storm or floods events replenish water supplies, ensuring the health of our ecosystems, while rarer larger storms or floods cause damage to property and life. These differing impacts depend on both storm rarity and duration and are largely dependent on coincident atmospheric water vapour. Using a novel metric that quantifies the extent of concurrency that exists between precipitation and total water vapour extremes, large regional variations are identified across the globe. Tropical regions such as Northeast Africa and South/East Asia consistently exhibit greater concurrency across all precipitation durations. In contrast, areas of the extra-tropics, such as the Mediterranean and Northwest Americas, show a rapid decline in concurrency with increasing duration. However, for rare events of long duration, non-tropical regions maintain high concurrency. With the link between climate change and increasing total water vapour well established, these results suggest that flood events will increase globally, with increases most apparent for longer and rarer events. This work underscores the need for tailored regional strategies in managing extreme precipitation and flood events in the future.

Development of a laboratory complex for measuring the condensation of atmospheric water vapors

This article presents the results of an experimental study of multiphase flows focusing on the influence of convective condensation of atmospheric water vapour on heat and mass transfer. The primary emphasis is on developing a laboratory setup capable of directly measuring the condensation rate of atmospheric water vapour on a water surface. Such an approach provides the opportunity to obtain more precise and reliable data on convective condensation and its impact on the water balance under various conditions. The experimental results revealed a nonlinear relationship between the condensation rate and the moisture excess, which differs from the linear relationship described by Dalton's law. This deviation was thoroughly examined, and a linear relationship between downward molecular flows and the forces induced by differences in relative humidity concentrations in the convective layer was proposed. The estimated average values of the condensation rate obtained in the experiments were 0.017 L/m²·hour, which, according to estimations, accounts for the condensation flux of water from the atmosphere to the ocean, consistent with the precipitation-evaporation balance in the land-ocean water balance. This information helps to more accurately determine the role of convective condensation in the water balance, contributing to refining assessments of water balance components in various watersheds. The results of this study have practical significance for hydrologists, climatologists, and experts in thermohydraulics and energy engineering. The proposed approaches and methods for measuring convective condensation of atmospheric water vapour can be applicable in various engineering systems and technologies to enhance the efficiency and accuracy of water balance calculations and forecasts.

More Heavy Precipitation in World Urban Regions Captured Through a Two‐Way Subgrid Land‐Atmosphere Coupling Framework in the NCAR CESM2

AbstractCurrent global climate models (GCMs), limited to grid‐scale land‐atmosphere coupling, cannot represent subgrid urban‐rural precipitation contrasts. This study develops an innovative two‐way subgrid land‐atmosphere coupling framework in the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Community Earth System Model version 2 (CESM2) to explicitly resolve land‐atmosphere interaction over subgrid individual land units. Results show that urban heat island (UHI) leads to the urban rainfall effect (URE), which in turn alleviates overestimated UHI over China in CESM2. The URE manifests as a shift toward more heavy precipitation and less light precipitation in world urban areas than in surrounding rural counterparts. This feature is consistent with available observations. In heavy precipitation situations, the UHI promotes atmospheric instability and enhances atmospheric water vapor holding capacity, resulting in more heavy precipitation in urban areas. Conversely, in light precipitation situations, the UHI and decreased evaporation from urban impermeable surfaces diminish atmospheric relative humidity, suppressing light precipitation.

Effect of Embedded g-C3N4 Nanosheets on the Hydration and Thermal Response Behavior of Cross-Linked Thermoresponsive Copolymer Films.

The effect of embedded graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) nanosheets on hydration and thermal response behavior of cross-linked thermoresponsive poly(di(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate-co-oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate), abbreviated as P(MA-co-MA300), thin films is probed by white light interferometry. Compared with that of the cross-linked pure P(MA-co-MA300) films, the surface roughness of the cross-linked hybrid films is slightly increased, which is caused by the minor aggregation of g-C3N4 nanosheets during the spin-coating process. After exposure to a water vapor atmosphere, both cross-linked pure and hybrid films can absorb water and swell. However, the introduction of g-C3N4 not only induces a larger hydration extent but also triggers a nonlinear transition behavior upon heating. This prominent difference might be related to the residual hydrophilic groups (-NH2 and N-H) on the surface of g-C3N4 nanosheets, which enhance the interaction and absorption capability for water molecules in the hybrid films. Upon further increasing the amount of embedded g-C3N4 nanosheets in films, more hydrogen bonds are formed and a larger hydration extent of films is observed. To break all of the hydrogen bonds in films, a higher transition temperature (TT) is required. The observed hydration and transition behaviors of hybrid films can be used to design hydrogel-based films for hydrogen evolution or wastewater treatment.

Automatic detection and tracking polar lows from synthetic aperture radar and radiometer observations

ABSTRACT Polar lows are small, high-latitude, intense maritime cyclones and frequently have severe impacts on the ocean such as strong winds, high waves and heavy rainfall. They are difficult to observe and forecast due to their short lifetime (<48 hours), small horizontal scales (200 ~ 1000 km), and the sparse synoptic observing network that exists in the subarctic and Arctic oceans. Previous studies have identified and monitored polar lows by visual analysis of visible and thermal infrared imagery from satellites. However, this manual inspection method is subjective, time-consuming and inevitably involves errors in polar low detections. In this study, we present an automatic objective procedure which we demonstrate by detecting polar lows using spaceborne active synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and passive microwave radiometer observations. Based on the marker-controlled watershed segmentation method and the morphological image thinning algorithm, the centre locations of polar lows are determined using RADARSAT-2 and Sentinel-1A high-resolution SAR images and total atmospheric water vapour content fields from radiometers (AMSR2, SSM/I, GMI, and WindSat). Furthermore, the trajectories of polar lows are constructed, using detected centres from multi-temporal SAR and radiometer observations. Polar low detections are confirmed by high surface wind speeds from SAR, scatterometer, and radiometer data, the presence of cloud vortex signatures visible in MODIS, AVHRR, and VIIRS thermal infrared imagery, as well as the difference between the sea surface temperature and the air temperature at 500 hPa. These results show that the proposed methods have potential to automatically detect and track polar lows from multisensor data. We also estimate the characteristic parameters of detected polar lows. The diameters, translation speeds, and distances travelled are 189 km and 225 km, 8 m/s and 4.9 m/s, and 318 km and 263 km, respectively.

Chitosan-Surfactant Composite Nanocoatings on Glass and Zinc Surfaces Prepared from Aqueous Solutions.

Hydrophobic coatings from chitosan-surfactant composites (ca. 400 nm thick by UV-Vis spectroscopy) for possible corrosion protection were developed on glass and zinc substrates. The surfactants (sodium dodecyl sulfate, SDS or sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate, and SDBS) were added to the chitosan by two methods: mixing the surfactants with the aqueous chitosan solutions before film deposition or impregnating the deposited chitosan films with surfactants from their aqueous solutions. For the mixed coatings, it was found that the lower surface tension of solutions (40-45 mN/m) corresponded to more hydrophobic (80-90°) coatings in every case. The hydrophobicity of the impregnated coatings was especially significant (88° for SDS and 100° for SDBS). Atomic force microscopy studies revealed a slight increase in roughness (max 1.005) for the most hydrophobic coatings. The accumulation of surfactants in the layer was only significant (0.8-1.0 sulfur atomic %) in the impregnated samples according to X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Polarization and electron impedance spectroscopy tests confirmed better barrier properties for these samples (40-50% pseudo-porosity instead of 94%). The degree of swelling in a water vapor atmosphere was significantly lower in the case of the impregnated coatings (ca. 25%) than that of the native ones (ca. 75%), measured by spectroscopic ellipsometry. Accordingly, good barrier layer properties require advantageous bulk properties in addition to surface hydrophobicity.

Recent trends and variability of temperature and atmospheric water vapor over South Asia

This study examines the recent trends and variability of temperature and atmospheric water vapor over South Asia during the summer monsoon season from 1970 to 2022. We employ gridded reanalysis and observational datasets to assess the trends and variability in surface temperature and further investigate the associated physical processes. Our results show that the surface temperature over South Asia has increased by 0.5 °C per decade. Notably, we find a statistically significant major transition in the surface temperature series in 1995, such that 1970–1994 (1995–2022) is associated with anomalous cooling (anomalous warming). Since 1995, not only have the temporal variations in regional surface temperature, atmospheric water vapor, and clear-sky downward longwave radiation been synchronous at interannual scales, but their largest spatial variations have been located mainly over the same region. A diagnosis of the atmospheric moisture budget reveals that the observed changes in water vapor convergence over South Asia are dominated by changes in mean circulation dynamics, while the change in thermodynamics is relatively small. The enhancement of the Somali low-level jet may contribute to increased water vapor in South Asia by modulating low-level circulations.

FORECASTING THE DYNAMICS OF POPULATIONS OF HARMFUL INSECTS AND PATHOGENS OF WOODY PLANTS OF THE FOREST-STEPPE OF UKRAINE IN THE CONTEXT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change is one of the most pressing issues facing humanity. The emergence of dry tree patches in various parts of the globe indicates the global nature of processes related to planetary cycles and climate change. This is likely linked to various factors, including warming trends, changes in precipitation patterns, sea level rise, and alterations in ocean currents. To achieve the goal of this article, through empirical and analytical research methods, we analyzed contemporary scientific publications. We found that the projected spread of insect pests, parasites, and pathogens among tree species is increasingly concerning experts. Forest drying is a problem for both Europe and Ukraine, where the area affected by pine wilt has encompassed the Forest-Steppe region and spread to other natural zones. The paper highlights the pertinent issue of analyzing factors contributing to the weakening and deterioration of the sanitary condition of Forest-Steppe trees in Ukraine. Researchers predict significant climate changes in the near future. Due to such changes, insect pests and other pathogens may inflict even greater damage to forest plants. Climate change, particularly increased carbon dioxide emissions and warming, frequent droughts, and temperature fluctuations, affect pest populations. Common diseases of Forest-Steppe trees in Ukraine include those caused by insects, fungi, and bacteria. For instance, the most widespread affliction in forests is root rot (Fomes aппosus Fr., Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.) Bref.). Plants also suffer considerable damage from nematodes and viruses. The publication examines the impact of climate change (temperature, humidity, etc.) on the biology and ecology of insect pests and explores the potential use of modern monitoring technologies for pests and forecasting tools. Thus, projected climate changes can cause warming, altering the quantitative, qualitative, and temporal characteristics of precipitation. In this way, global climate changes affect water availability in soil, atmospheric water vapor flows, and hydrological processes. Many pests are sensitive to changes in precipitation and temperature, leading to shifts in their populations.

Eco-friendly atmospheric water generation: A novel desiccant-based variable pressure humidification-dehumidification system

This study introduces a zero-brine discharge approach, eliminating the necessity for continuous seawater input and brine disposal—major drawbacks in traditional desalination methods. This research’s core is a humidification-dehumidification (HDH) system operating under variable pressures, significantly boosting efficiency. The system comprises two synergistic components: a variable-pressure HDH unit and a desiccant-based moisture extractor utilizing a lithium chloride solution. After freshwater is extracted, the concentrated desiccant cycles through the moisture extractor to absorb atmospheric water vapor, diluting it for reuse and thus completing the desiccant loop. The heat and mass transfer processes were scrutinized through mathematical modeling, and parameters for maximizing the Gain Output Ratio (GOR) were optimized. The results underscore the system’s capacity for sustainable, efficient freshwater production. This methodology offers a feasible solution to challenges in desalination and significantly contributes to alleviating global water scarcity, particularly in coastal areas. Further analysis shows that systematic optimization of key parameters, such as pressure ratios and desiccant temperatures, considerably improves performance metrics. Adjusting the pressure ratio from 1.22, where the GOR peaks at 2.44, to 1.56 directly impacts system efficiency. Modulating the maximum desiccant temperature at an optimal pressure ratio of 1.25 reveals that the GOR can increase from 1.635 at 0.7 to 2.44 at an effectiveness of 0.8. Optimized manipulation of these parameters can potentially enhance the GOR by up to 50% and improve mass transfer efficiency by about 20% within the HDH process.

A novel vinyl-bridged graphene oxide/polycarbosilane precursor for harsh environment-resistant ceramic temperature sensor

Ceramic temperature sensors are promising for automobile and jet engine monitoring but lack suitable materials and manufacturing methods. Herein, we designed and synthesized a novel vinyl-bridged graphene oxide/polycarbosilane (v-GO/PCS) hybrid precursor that could be easily shaped and pyrolyzed into reduced graphene oxide/silicon carbide (rGO/SiC) film as a stable and sensitive temperature sensor under harsh environments. As a result, 1 %-rGO/SiC ceramic film exhibited a fast response in the temperature range of 100 °C to 1000 °C. The rGO acted as a bridge linking the surrounding SiC grains, which significantly reduced the amount of thermal energy required for the directional transfer of electrons, leading to an increase in both the detection range and sensitivity of the sensor. The introduction of dry air, water vapor and acid (or alkali) atmosphere in the high-temperature conditions further verified its excellent stability. This work provides a simple and practicable strategy for highly stable temperature detection under harsh environments.

Enhancing Atmospheric Monitoring Capabilities: A Comparison of Low- and High-Cost GNSS Networks for Tropospheric Estimations

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) signals experience delays when passing through the atmosphere due to the presence of free electrons in the ionosphere and air density in the non-ionized part of the atmosphere, known as the troposphere. The Precise Point Positioning (PPP) technique demonstrates highly accurate positioning along with Zenith Tropospheric Delay (ZTD) estimation. ZTD estimation is valuable for various applications including climate modelling and determining atmospheric water vapor. Current GNSS network resolutions are not completely sufficient for the scale of a few kilometres that regional climate and weather models are increasingly adopting. The Centipede-RTK network is a low-cost option for increasing the spatial resolution of tropospheric monitoring. This study is motivated by the question of whether low-cost GNSS networks can provide a viable alternative without compromising data quality or precision. This study compares the performance of the low-cost Centipede-RTK network in calculating the Zenith Tropospheric Delay (ZTD) to that of the existing EUREF Permanent Network (EPN), using two alternative software packages, RTKLIB demo5 version and CSRS-PPP version 3, to ensure robustness and software independence in the findings. This investigation indicated that the ZTD estimations from both networks are almost identical when processed by the CSRS-PPP software, with the highest mean difference being less than 3.5 cm, confirming that networks such as Centipede-RTK could be a reliable option for dense precise atmospheric monitoring. Furthermore, this study revealed that the Centipede-RTK network, when processed using CSRS-PPP, provides ZTD estimations that are very similar and consistent with the EUREF ZTD product values. These findings suggest that low-cost GNSS networks like Centipede-RTK are viable for enhancing network density, thus improving the spatial resolution of tropospheric monitoring and potentially enriching climate modelling and weather prediction capabilities, paving the way for broader application and research in GNSS meteorology.

Pivotal role of water vapor–mediated defect engineering on SrTiO3 nanofiber toward efficient photocatalytic water splitting

The oxygen vacancies (OVs) have played key roles as either charge carrier traps for inhibiting recombination or directly as active sites for photocatalytic redox reactions. In this study, the population and types of oxygen vacancies within the electrospun SrTiO3 nanofibers were modulated through water vapor and air atmosphere annealing respectively. Combining the distinctive 1D nanofibrous structure with optimized OVs, the water vapor–mediated OVs-rich SrTiO3 nanofibers achieved a significant enhancement in specific surface area and porosity, effectively suppressing the recombination of photogenerated carriers. The OVs can effectively promote the conversion of photon excitons into charge carriers, accelerate the carrier separation, and facilitate surface redox reaction. The optimized water vapor–mediated STO-W-700 exhibited abundant active sites and rapid surface charge separation/migration across the nanofibers, leading to an exceptional hydrogen production performance of 296.82 μmolg/h. During the photocatalytic process, the OVs act synergistically with nearby metal sites to optimize the adsorption energy of reactants. This work not only provides an effective pathway for manipulating oxygen vacancies through water vapor–mediated defect engineering strategy, but also reveals a new water splitting mechanism, laying the foundation for further research and development of efficient solar energy conversion technologies.