Altitude Categories Research Articles

Bioindicators for Assessing Soil Quality in Ecuador’s Jun Jun Micro-Watershed

The evaluation of soil quality in different altitudinal gradients, with vegetative and non-vegetative subareas, is crucial for proper soil functioning and optimal crop growth, thus contributing to the sustainability of agroecosystems. Although the altitudinal gradient significantly influences soil quality, the ability to predict this quality, expressed through an index, in soils with and without vegetative cover, is still insufficiently explored. This study employed the simple additive index (SQI) method to evaluate soil quality in Ecuador’s Jun Jun micro-watershed, Tungurahua region. Three altitude categories (<2800, 2800–2900, >2900 masl) were investigated, with 24 soil samples collected across both vegetated and non-vegetated areas. The indicators used included chemical and biological parameters such as soil organic carbon (OC), earthworm density (WD), earthworm biomass (WB), organic matter (OM), pH, and total nitrogen (TN). The results revealed that in areas with altitudinal gradients below 2800 masl, the soil quality index values were higher compared to other altitudes. In vegetated areas, a decrease in index values was observed as the altitudinal gradient increased, indicating a deterioration in soil quality with increasing altitude. These findings are significant in providing a quantitative assessment of the effects of altitudinal gradient and vegetative cover influence on soil quality.

An Innovative Approach to Surface Deformation Estimation in Forest Road and Trail Networks Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Real-Time Kinematic-Derived Data for Monitoring and Maintenance

The significant increase in hiking, wood extraction, and transportation activities exerts a notable impact on the environmental balance along trails and forest roads in the form of soil degradation. The aim of this study was to develop a Deformation Classification Model for the surface of a multi-use trail, as well as to calculate sediment deposition and generate a flood hazard map in a partially forested region. The eBee X mapping Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) equipped with the senseFly S.O.D.A. 3D camera and Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) technology flew over the study area of 149 ha in Northern Greece at an altitude of 120 m and achieved a high spatial resolution of 2.6 cm. The specific constellation of fixed-wing equipment makes the use of ground control points obsolete, compared to previous, in most cases polycopter-based, terrain deformation research. Employing the same methodology, two distinct classifications were applied, utilizing the Digital Surface Model (DSM) and Digital Elevation Model (DEM) for analysis. The Geolocation Errors and Statistics for Bundle Block Adjustment exhibited a high level of accuracy in the model, with the mean values for each of the three directions (X, Y, Z) being 0.000023 m, −0.000044 m, and 0.000177 m, respectively. The standard deviation of the error in each direction was 0.022535 m, 0.019567 m, and 0.020261 m, respectively. In addition, the Root Mean Square (RMS) error was estimated to be 0.022535 m, 0.019567 m, and 0.020262 m, respectively. A total of 20 and 30 altitude categories were defined at a 4 cm spatial resolution, each assigned specific ranges of values, respectively. The area of each altitude category was quantified in square meters (m2), while the volume of each category was measured in cubic meters (m3). The development of a Deformation Classification Model for the deck of a trail or forest road, coupled with the computation of earthworks and the generation of a flood hazards map, represents an efficient approach that can provide valuable support to forest managers during the planning phase or maintenance activities of hiking trails and forest roads.

A U-shaped protection of altitude against mortality and infection of COVID-19 in Peru: an ecological study

BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic has affected the world in multiple ways and has been a challenge for the health systems of each country. From the beginning, risk factors for the severity and mortality of the disease were considered, as the spread of the virus was related to the living conditions of each population.MethodsIn this ecological study we have evaluated the role of geography, precisely the altitude above sea level in the incidence and mortality of COVID-19 in Peru. Incidence and mortality data were taken from the open-access database of the government of Peru until March 2021. COVID-19 cases and COVID-19 mortality were treated as cases/density population and 1000 x cases/inhabitants while altitude was treated as continuous and as a categorical variable divided in 7 categories. The relationship between COVID-19 cases or deaths for COVID-19 and altitude as continuous variable was determined using Spearman correlation test. Meanwhile when altitude was considered as a categorical variable, Poisson regression or negative binomial analyses were applied.ResultsA significant inverse correlation was found between COVID-19 cases by population density and altitude (r=-0.37 p < 0.001). By altitude categories, the lowest risk for infection was observed between 3,000 and 3,500 m (IRR 0.08; 95% CI 0.05,0.12). Moreover, we found an inverse correlation between altitude and COVID-19 mortality (r=-0.39 p < 0.001). Also, the lowest risk for mortality was observed between 3,000 and 3,500 m (IRR 0.12; 95%CI 0.08; 0.18). Similar results were found when analyses were adjusted for inhabitants and stratified by sex.ConclusionThis study reports an inverse relationship between COVID-19 incidence and mortality with respect to the altitude of residence, particularly, a u-shaped protection is shown, with a highest benefit between 3000 and 3500 m. The possibility of using hypoxia as an alternative treatment requires more complex studies that should allow knowing the physiological and environmental mechanisms of the protective role.

Disparities in COVID-19 incidence and fatality rates at high-altitude.

SARS-CoV-2 has affected every demography disproportionately, including even the native highland populations. Hypobaric-hypoxic settings at high-altitude (HA, >2,500 masl) present an extreme environment that impacts the survival of permanent residents, possibly including SARS-CoV-2. Conflicting hypotheses have been presented for COVID-19 incidence and fatality at HA. To evaluate protection or risk against COVID-19 incidence and fatality in humans under hypobaric-hypoxic environment of high-altitude (>2,501 masl). Global COVID-19 data of March 2020-21, employed from official websites of the Indian Government, John Hopkins University, and Worldometer were clustered into 6 altitude categories. Clinical cofactors and comorbidities data were evaluated with COVID-19 incidence and fatality. Extensive comparisons and correlations using several statistical tools estimated the risk and protection. Of relevance, data analyses revealed four distinct responses, namely, partial risk, total risk, partial protection, and total protection from COVID-19 at high-altitude indicating a mixed baggage and complexity of the infection. Surprisingly, it included the countries within the same geographic region. Moreover, body mass index, hypertension, and diabetes correlated significantly with COVID-19 incidence and fatality rate (P≤0.05). Varied patterns of protection and risk against COVID-19 incidence and fatality were observed among the high-altitude populations. It is though premature to generalize COVID-19 effects on any particular demography without further extensive studies.

Analysis of Excess Mortality Data at Different Altitudes During the COVID-19 Outbreak in Ecuador.

Ortiz-Prado, Esteban, Raul Patricio Fernandez Naranjo, Eduardo Vasconez, Katherine Simbaña-Rivera, Trigomar Correa-Sancho, Alex Lister, Manuel Calvopiña, and Ginés Viscor. Analysis of excess mortality data at different altitudes during the COVID-19 outbreak in Ecuador. High Alt Med Biol. 22:406-416, 2021. Background: It has been speculated that living at high altitude confers some risk reduction in terms of SARS-CoV-2 infection, reduced transmissibility, and arguable lower COVID-19-related mortality. Objective: We aim to determine the number of excess deaths reported in Ecuador during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic in relation to different altitude categories among 221 cantons in Ecuador, ranging from sea level to 4,300 m above. Methods: A descriptive ecological country-wide analysis of the excess mortality in Ecuador was performed since March 1, 2020, to March 1, 2021. Every canton was categorized as lower (for altitudes 2,500 m or less) or higher (for altitudes >2,500 m) in a first broad classification, as well as in two different classifications: The one proposed by Imray et al. in 2011 (low altitude <1,500 m, moderate altitude 1,500-2,500 m, high altitude 2,500-3,500 m, or very high altitude 3,500-5,500 m) and the one proposed by Bärtsch et al. in 2008 (near sea level 0-500 m, low altitude 500-2,000 m, moderate altitude 2,000-3,000 m, high altitude 3,000-5,500 m, and extreme altitude 5,500 m). A Poisson fitting analysis was used to identify trends on officially recorded all-caused deaths and those attributed to COVID-19. Results: In Ecuador, at least 120,573 deaths were recorded during the first year of the pandemic, from which 42,453 were catalogued as excessive when compared with the past 3 years of averages (2017-2019). The mortality rate at the lower altitude was 301/100,000 people, in comparison to 242/100,000 inhabitants in elevated cantons. Considering the four elevation categories, the highest excess deaths came from towns located at low altitude (324/100,000), in contrast to the moderate altitude (171/100,000), high-altitude (249/100,000), and very high-altitude (153/100,000) groups. Conclusions: This is the first report on COVID-19 excess mortality in a high-altitude range from 0 to 4,300 m above sea level. We found that absolute COVID-19-related excess mortality is lower both in time and in proportion in the cantons located at high and very high altitude when compared with those cantons located at low altitude.

Moderate Altitude Residence Reduces Male Colorectal and Female Breast Cancer Mortality More Than Incidence: Therapeutic Implications?

Simple SummaryLiving at moderate altitudes has been reported to be associated with health benefits, including reduced mortality from male colorectal and female breast cancer. The aim of this study was to evaluate altitude-dependent incidence rates and to compare them with mortality rates of those cancers. We further explored whether altitude-associated differences in lifestyle behaviour exist. Analyses including all incidence cases and deaths over a 10-year observation period of an Alpine country (Austria) revealed that the age-standardized incidence and mortality rates of male colorectal cancer decreased by 24.0% and 44.2%, and that of female breast cancer by 6.5% and 26.2%, from the lowest (<251 m) to the highest (1000–2000) altitude level. The population-based survey indicated higher physical activity levels and lower body mass index for both sexes living at a moderate altitude compared to those living below 251 m. These observations may, in certain cases, support decision making when changing residence.Background: Living at moderate altitude may be associated with health benefits, including reduced mortality from male colorectal and female breast cancer. We aimed to determine altitude-dependent incidence and mortality rates of those cancers and put them in the context of altitude-associated lifestyle differences. Methods: Incidence cases and deaths of male colorectal cancer (n = 17,712 and 7462) and female breast cancer (n = 33,803 and 9147) from altitude categories between 250 to about 2000 m were extracted from official Austrian registries across 10 years (2008–2017). Altitude-associated differences in health determinants were derived from the Austrian Health Interview Survey (2014). Results: The age-standardized incidence and mortality rates of male colorectal cancer decreased by 24.0% and 44.2%, and that of female breast cancer by 6.5% and 26.2%, respectively, from the lowest to the highest altitude level. Higher physical activity levels and lower body mass index for both sexes living at higher altitudes were found. Conclusions: Living at a moderate altitude was associated with a reduced incidence and (more pronounced) mortality from colorectal and breast cancer. Our results suggest a complex interaction between specific climate conditions and lifestyle behaviours. These observations may, in certain cases, support decision making when changing residence.

CONMEBOL Libertadores Cup: Altitude impact on goals and results in 16 years of soccer matches

Background: The CONMEBOL Libertadores Cup, is the continent’s most important international club tournament. Teams are exposed to different altitudes with short acclimatization periods. The present study describe the effect of altitude on the results and goals of soccer club teams matches between 2000 and 2015 in the CONMEBOL Libertadores Cup. Materials & Methods: All home and away matches from the group phase onwards and which have been played at the traditional team venue were taken into account, thus, 2039 games were analysed. The teams were classified into altitude categories according to the physiological impact and registered hometown altitude. A Poisson´s generalized linear model was used to study the relationship between the altitude of both home and away teams and the number of goals scored for each team according to the altitude category. The probabilities that the home team winning, drawing, or losing the match were estimated using a regression model for ordinal variables and assuming a multinomial probability distribution with the logistic linkage. Factors as heat, temperature and general performance of the teams were not considered. Results: Home team scores more (2.62 goals) when the away team descends three altitude categories, followed by a descent of two altitude categories (2.01 goals) and an ascent of three altitude categories (1.89 goals). This is associated with an increase probability of winning for the home team, being 5.5 times more likely when the away team descends three altitude categories, 2.3 times more when it descends two categories, and 2.5 times more when it ascends three altitude categories. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the away team is more likely to lose a match when it has to descend two or three altitude categories and when it ascends three altitude categories.

Mortality Attributed to COVID-19 in High-Altitude Populations

Woolcott, Orison O., and Richard N. Bergman. Mortality attributed to COVID-19 in high-altitude populations. High Alt Med Biol. 21:409-416, 2020. Background: Since partial oxygen pressure decreases as altitude increases, environmental hypoxia could worsen Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) patient's hypoxemia. We compared COVID-19 mortality at different altitudes. Methods: Retrospective analysis of population-level data on COVID-19 deaths was conducted in the United States (1,016 counties) and Mexico (567 municipalities). Mixed-model Poisson regression analysis of the association between altitude and COVID-19 mortality was conducted using individual-level data from 40,168 Mexican subjects with COVID-19, adjusting for multiple covariates. Results: Between January 20 and April 13, 2020, mortality rates were higher in U.S. counties located at ≥2,000 m elevation versus those located <1,500 m (12.3 vs. 3.2 per 100,000; p < 0.001). In Mexico, between March 13 and May 13, 2020, mortality rates were higher in municipalities located at ≥2,000 m versus those located <1,500 m (5.3 vs. 3.9 per 100,000; p < 0.001). Among Mexican subjects younger than 65 years, the risk of death was 36% higher in those living at ≥2,000 m versus those living at <1,500 m (adjusted incidence rate ratio [IRR]: 1.36; confidence interval [95% CI], 1.05-1.78; p = 0.022). Among Mexican men, the risk of death was 31% higher at ≥2,000 m versus that at <1,500 m (adjusted IRR: 1.31; 95% CI, 1.03-1.66; p = 0.025). No association between altitude and COVID-19 mortality was found among Mexican women or among Mexican subjects 65 years of age and older. Conclusions: Altitude is associated with COVID-19 mortality in men younger than 65 years.

Altitudinal Effects on Innate Immune Response of a Subterranean Rodent.

Immune defense is costly to maintain and deploy, and the optimal investment into immune defense depends on risk of infection. Altitude is a natural environmental factor that is predicted to affect parasite abundance, with lower parasite abundance predicted at higher altitudes due to stronger environmental stressors, which reduce parasite transmission. Using high and low altitude populations of the Turkish blind mole-rat (TBMR) Nannospalax xanthodon, we tested for effects of altitude on constitutive innate immune defense. Field studies were performed with 32 wild animals in 2017 and 2018 from two low- and one high-altitude localities in the Central Taurus Mountains, at respective altitudes of 1010 m, 1115 m, and 2900 m above sea level. We first compared innate standing immune defense as measured by the bacteria-killing ability of blood serum. We then measured corticosterone stress hormone levels, as stressful conditions may affect immune response. Finally, we compared prevalence and intensity of gastrointestinal parasites of field-captured TBMR. We found that the bacteria-killing ability of serum is greater in the mole-rat samples from high altitude. There was no significant difference in stress (corticosterone) levels between altitude categories. Coccidian prevalence and abundance were significantly higher in 2017 than 2018 samples, but there was no significant difference in prevalence, abundance, or intensity between altitudes, or between sexes. Small sample sizes may have reduced power to detect true differences; nevertheless, this study provides support that greater standing innate immunity in high altitude animals may reflect greater investment into constitutive defense.

Keanekaragaman spesies kutukebul (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) pada tanaman hortikultura dengan ketinggian tempat berbeda di Jawa Barat

Kutukebul (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) merupakan serangga yang berperan sebagai hama pada tanaman hortikultura (buah-buahan, sayuran, dan tanaman hias). Kutukebul telah dikenal di Indonesia, tetapi belum banyak informasi mengenai keanekaragaman spesiesnya pada tanaman hortikultura. Penelitian ini bertujuan mengetahui keanekaragaman spesies kutukebul di tanaman hortikultura yang menjadi tanaman inang kutukebul pada ketinggian tempat yang berbeda. Sampel kutukebul dikoleksi dari tanaman sayuran, buah-buahan, dan tanaman hias di lima wilayah di Jawa Barat, yaitu Bogor, Sukabumi, Cianjur, Bandung, dan Garut. Tempat pengambilan sampel dikelompokkan menjadi tiga kisaran ketinggian, yaitu dataran rendah, sedang, dan tinggi. Jumlah individu dan spesies kutukebul yang diperoleh dari masing-masing tanaman inang dan ketinggian dianalisis dengan menggunakan analisis keragaman (ANOVA) dengan uji lanjut Tukey (α = 0,05). Hubungan antara ketinggian tempat dan kelimpahan serta jumlah spesies kutukebul dianalisis dengan analisis regresi linier. Keanekaragaman spesies kutukebul diukur dengan indeks keanekaragaman Shannon dan Simpson. Rata-rata jumlah individu kutukebul yang terbanyak ditemukan pada tanaman sayuran (121,8 individu per tanaman), tetapi jumlah spesies terbanyak diperoleh dari tanaman buah-buahan (2,4 spesies per tanaman). Berdasarkan ketinggian tempat, rata-rata jumlah spesies kutukebul yang terbanyak ditemukan di dataran rendah (4,7 spesies), sedangkan yang paling sedikit ditemukan di dataran tinggi (1,6 spesies). Kelimpahan individu kutukebul meningkat seiring dengan peningkatan ketinggian tempat, sebaliknya jumlah spesiesnya menurun seiring dengan peningkatan ketinggian tempat. Keanekaragaman spesies kutukebul yang tertinggi terdapat di dataran rendah (H’ = 2,08), sedangkan keanekaragaman spesies yang terendah ada di dataran tinggi (H’ = 0,38). Namun berdasarkan indeks Simpson, di dataran tinggi ternyata terdapat dominasi spesies kutukebul (D = 0,54), yaitu dari spesies Aleurodicus dugesii Cockerell.

Land cover changes on temperate organic substrates over last 150 years: evidence from the Czech Republic

Organic substrates are distinctive and important resources due to their ability to regulate nutrient cycles and habitats they provide. In this research we test the importance of organic substrates for present distribution of habitats accumulating organic sediment and compare historic (circa 1850) and present land cover maps to characterise the long-term change on these substrates. The results show: 1) areal extent of organic substrates in lowlands is 8552 ha, in highlands 11,465 ha and in mountains 13,374 ha; 2) the area of current mire habitats is 43,801.75 ha, on organic-substrates it is 9555.64 ha (i.e. 21.82% share on all current mire habitats) and mire habitats covers 28.62% of organic sediments, and; 3) the test of losses and gains among land cover units and between organic and non-organic soils show us, that the most remarkable land cover losses on organic soils occurred on grasslands in all altitude categories – to water areas and arable land in Lowlands ( 750 m a.s.l.). Although organic sediments are sparse in lowlands, they were found to be very important for the present distribution of mire habitats.

Characterization of soil of Jijiga plain in the Somali regional state of Ethiopia

Low soil fertility and poor soil fertility management practices constrain crop production in Ethiopia. Diagnosing soil fertility problems and characterizing soils are a prerequisite for formulating appropriate soil fertility management practices. However, most soil fertility problems in Ethiopia are not diagnosed, and the soils are not characterized. This invariably leads to lack of documented information for judicious application of soil ameliorative measures to increase crop yields. This study was, therefore, aimed at characterizing soil of Jijiga Plain in the Somali Regional State of Ethiopia on which wheat is commonly grown. The study was conducted during the main cropping season of 2012/2013. The study area was stratified in to three altitude categories 1650 - 1700, 1750 - 1800, 1850 - 1900 meters above sea level prior to sampling. Then, a total of 3 x 2 x 30 x 3 = 540 disturbed soil samples were collected from the surface (0-15 cm) and subsurface (15-30 cm) layers across the altitude categories. The samples were composited treatment-wise to 3 x 6 = 18 sub-samples. The composite soil sub-samples were analyzed for selected soil physico-chemical properties. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The results indicated that both the surface and subsurface soils are clayey in texture. The pH of the soil at the layer of 0 - 30 cm ranged from 8.37 to 8.82 and is rated as strongly alkaline. The exchangeable Ca 2+ contents of the soil at the surface and subsurface soil layers were 24.52 and 30.52 cmol+/kg, respectively, which is rated as very high in both soil layers; the exchangeable Mg 2+ content is 7.36 cmol+/kg in the surface soil layer, which is rated as high, but 10.21 cmol+/kg in the sub-surface soil layers, which is rated as very high. The exchangeable Na+ content of the soil ranges from 0.33 to 2.16 cmol+/kg, which is rated as medium to high. The exchangeable K+ contents of the surface and subsurface soil layers are 1.1 and 1.4 cmol+/kg, respectively, which are rated as high and very high in the surface and sub-surface soil layers. The cation exchange capacity of the soil ranges from 37.17 to 40.49 cmol+/kg, which is rated as high to very high. The percent base saturation in the surface soil is 89.63% whereas that in the sub-surface soil is 109.23%, which is rated as very high. The contents of soil organic carbon (1.81%) and total nitrogen (0.13%) in the surface soil layer were found to be medium whereas those of the sub-surface soil layer were found to be low. However, the available phosphorus contents of both the surface (2.4 mg kg -1 soil) and sub-surface (1.87 mg kg -1 soil) soil layers were found to be very low. It could, thus, be concluded that, the soil of the study area is characterized by strong alkalinity with high contents soluble calcium carbonate, very low content of plant-available phosphorus, and medium contents of soil organic matter as well as total nitrogen. However, the texture and other chemical properties of the soil do not appear to limit crop production. Therefore, there is a need to take ameliorative measures aimed at lowering the pH and increasing availability of soil phosphorus, soil organic carbon, and total nitrogen to improve wheat and other crop yields in the study area. Keywords: Available phosphorus; Cation exchange capacity; Soil organic carbon; Soil organic matter; Soil texture; Soil pH

Assessing stock and thresholds detection of soil organic carbon and nitrogen along an altitude gradient in an east Africa mountain ecosystem

It is well established altitude driven agro-ecological factors play a key role to influence soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (TN) stocks in tropical mountain ecosystems. Land cover transformation is chiefly responsible for soil nutrient stock changes, with the magnitude of stock changes being a crucial concern for most of east African mountain ecosystems. With biophysical heterogeneity defined by localized micro-climates, spatial soil nutrient stocks patterns and their detection thresholds remain poorly understood. This study describes SOC and TN stocks within a research transect in the Taita hills, Southeast Kenya, using three forms of stratification: altitude, soil types and land cover categories. Results show a linear and positive relationship between altitude and either carbon (R2=0.30; P-value<0.05) or nitrogen (R2=0.35; P-value<0.05) stocks, but varied within land cover and altitude gradations. Cambisols had 30% higher average SOC stock relative to Ferrasols and contained about half the stock observed for forest dominated Umbrisols. Average total nitrogen stocks in Cambisols and Ferrasols were comparable (0.4kgm2) in contrast to Umbrisols (0.9kgm2). Altitude and soil temperature explained 63% soil C and 62% total soil in Ferrasols. Altitude, soil temperature and water filled pore space explained >80% SOC and TN variation in Umbrisols. The absolute minimum detectable difference for carbon and nitrogen stocks varied at the low and high altitude categories of the study transect. Biophysical soils, land cover and altitude delineations play a crucial role to determine spatial soil nutrient patterns in east African mountain ecosystems and should be considered in the design of sustainable nutrient management practices.

The effect of altitude on erythropoiesis-stimulating agent dose, hemoglobin level, and mortality in hemodialysis patients

Residence at higher altitude has been associated with improved anemia parameters and lower mortality rates among end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients. However, these associations were observed prior to the 2011 shift in erythropoiesis-stimulating agent (ESA) dosing. To determine the impact of altitude on contemporary ESRD patients, a retrospective observational analysis was conducted in which patients were ascribed to one of four altitude categories as of 1 Jan 2012 and outcomes were assessed during 2012. Associations between altitude category and outcomes were estimated using generalized linear mixed models, adjusted for covariates that differed at baseline. Patients at higher altitude were less likely to receive ESA treatment, and dose was 723 U/treatment (95 % confidence interval [CI]: 544, 834) lower in the highest altitude category compared to the lowest category. The proportion of patients using IV iron decreased with increasing altitude category. Patients in the highest two categories had greater mean hemoglobin values (+0.15 and +0.23 g/dL) than the lowest. Mortality was lower for patients in the highest altitude category compared to those in the lowest (incidence rate ratio 0.73; 95 % CI: 0.63, 0.88), although their rate of missed dialysis treatments was slightly higher. This study confirms that, in the context of current anemia management practices, high altitude is associated with higher hemoglobin and lower mortality, despite lower utilization of ESA and IV iron.

천마산에 서식하는 쇠살모사(Gloydius ussuriensis)의 고도와 서식지 타입에 따른 분포 패턴

동물의 분포는 서식지선택에 영향을 받으며, 서식지의 특성과 먹이자원은 종의 생존에 중요한 요인으로 작용한다. 본 연구는 천마산에 서식하는 쇠살모사(Gloydius ussuriensis)의 분포 패턴 특성을 파악하고자 고도, 서식지 특성, 잠재적 먹이자원인 양서류의 분포에 초점을 맞추어 수행되었다. 서식하는 고도범위에서 선호하는 서식지 타입을 알아보고자 고도를 3개의 범주(저고도, 중고도, 고고도)로 분류하였고, 서식지는 수생태계의 존재 유무에 따라 분류하였다. 쇠살모사의 경우, 고도와 서식지 타입에 따른 분포 모두 유의한 차이를 보였으며, 저고도와 물이 있는 계곡에서 주로 분포하였다. 양서류의 경우도 고도와 서식지에 따라 쇠살모사와 동일한 분포패턴을 보였다. 물이 있는 계곡의 쇠살모사와 양서류에 대한 미소서식지 분석결과는 유의한 차이가 없었다. 결과적으로 쇠살모사가 저고도에 위치한 물이 있는 계곡주변에서 대부분 분포하고 있었던 이유는 양서류의 분포가 그 원인으로 판단된다. 이러한 이유는 천마산에 서식하는 쇠살모사가 비교적 사냥하기 쉬운 먹이자원인 양서류를 선호했기 때문이라고 판단된다. The distribution of animals is affected by habitat selection, and habitat type and prey resource are important factors affecting their survival. This study was conducted to investigate the distribution pattern of the Red-tongue viper snake (Gloydius ussuriensis) with respect to altitude, habitat type and distribution of potential prey resource in Cheon-ma mountain, Korea. The study area of Cheon-ma mountain was separated into three altitude categories (low, middle, and high altitude) and the habitat types were categorized according to presence or absence of aquatic ecosystem and the preferred habitat in relation to altitude was determined. The distribution pattern of Red-tongue viper snakes was significantly different according to altitude and habitat type: they were mainly distributed at low altitude and in the water valleys. The distribution pattern of the Red-tongue viper snake correlated with that of amphibians. The analyses of microhabitat use of the Red-tongue viper snake and amphibians showed that their microhabitat types were not different significantly in water valleys. In conclusion, Red-tongue viper snakes were mainly distributed in the water valleys at low altitude and this is because amphibians are important as potential prey of the Red-tongue viper snake in Cheon-ma mountain.

“The hidden hunger”: Understanding the burden of anaemia and its determinants among pregnant and non-pregnant women in Ethiopia

Anaemia is a global public he alth problem associated with increased mortality and morbidity. The highest prevalence of anaemia exists in the developing world where its causes are multi -factorial. The objective of the study was to assess the burden of anaemia and its determinants among pregnant and non- pregnant women in Ethiopia . The 2005 Demographic and Health Survey data of Ethiopia were used . Permission to download and analyze the data was granted from ORC Macro, in Calverton, USA. SPSS v10.0 was used to analyze the data. Both univariate and multivariate analysis were carried out. Trend analysis was done using the stat -calc programme on Epi -info 2002. For all statistical tests , significance level was set at p -value of 0.05. A total of 5960 women of child bearing age were included in t he analysis. The mean haemoglobin was 12.72g/dl (95%CI: 12.66, 12.78g/dl). The general prevalence of anaemia among women was 27.7% (95%CI: 26.6, 28.9%). The prevalence of anaemia was 33.0% (95%CI: 28.7, 37.2%) and 27.3% (95%CI: 26.1, 28.4%) among pregnant and non- pregnant women respectively. The chi 2 for linear trend test revealed a significant negative association between prevalence of anaemia and women’s educational status, grouped altitude of residential places and household wealth index categories (p&lt;0 .05, for all three variables). The prevalence of anaemia was positively associated with past five years fertility level ( chi 2 for linear trend=35.2, df =2, p&lt;0.0001). Not possessing any toilet facilities (OR 1.85 95%CI: 1.66, 2.1), being resident of rural area (OR 2.02 95%CI: 1.75, 2.32) and not using contraceptive methods (OR 1.63 95%CI: 1.34, 1.98) were also associated with prevalence of anaemia among women. Logistic regression showed toilet possession to be the only independent predictor of prevalence of anaemia among pregnant women (Adj OR 2.17 95%CI: 1.28, 3.85). However, regression analysis among non- pregnant women revealed not having any toilet facilities (Adj OR 1.20 95%CI: 1.02, 1.42), lowering altitude categories of residential areas and not using contraception methods (Adj OR 1.39 95%CI: 1.13, 1.72) to be independent predictors of prevalence of anaemia. In conclusion, anaemia is a moderate public health problem among women in Ethiopia but there exist significant differences in magnitude by socio -economic status of women and their families and where they live . Interventions designed to address maternal anaemia should pay attention to both nutritional and non- nutritional intervention strategies that may include environmental sanitation, de -worming, and provision and promotion of family planning methods.

447 The Highs and Lows of Mental Illness: Suicides at Low, Middle, and High Altitude

Suicide rates are higher in western states. It has been hypothesized that the hypoxia of living at higher altitudes may be responsible. We sought to (1) describe the demographic, socioeconomic, mental health and suicide characteristics of completed suicides in 3 altitude categories and (2) identify differences between suicide victims at these 3 altitudes.

Haemoglobin adjustments to define anaemia

To provide researchers with an unambiguous definition of anaemia using haemoglobin. Review of recommendations by expert groups and review of the literature. This report provides an unambiguous approach to haemoglobin adjustments to define anaemia using international criteria. When determining anaemia using haemoglobin, it is important to account for pregnancy, altitude, cigarette smoking, and possibly ethnicity after removing unlikely values. These haemoglobin adjustments are presented. Recommendations for defining extreme haemoglobin values and for reporting anaemia and haemoglobin results are provided, and software programs to determine anaemia are described.

Analysis of Patterns in Diadromous Fish Distributions Using GIS

Understanding the factors limiting migratory behaviour is fundamental to conservation of diadromous fish. Applications of indices of habitat suitability are problematic for diadromous fish because fish presence and abundance in relation to habitat quality are confounded by barriers to fish migration. An alternative approach is to assess diadromous fish distributions in proportion to distance inland and altitude above mean sea level, and subsequently generate trajectories for the various species. This approach, however, may be problematic. We show that river distance inland and elevation are only weakly correlated in our study area. Thus, in areas where steep slopes are not encountered, fish migrations to significant elevations and inland distances can be expected. In other areas, coastal cliffs and geologic fault lines provide for steep stream gradients close to the sea, and fish do not migrate far inland. To solve this issue, we developed methods for improving species trajectory approaches to explain the distribution of diadromous fish using a GIS. We adjusted distance and altitude categories so that each stratum was represented by the same number of site records, with flexible intervals for each stratum. For species capable of forming land-locked populations we manipulated input values for elevation and river distance inland to account for migrations from lakes, rather than sea. Additionally, a new GIS derived variable was introduced to better explain the distribution of diadromous fish; the maximum stream slope a fish would encounter during upstream migration. This new slope variable, independent of distance inland and elevation, is likely to be a better predictor of migratory fish occurrences than elevation above mean sea level, as the different species will have different slope-thresholds that they can overcome.

Ecological Correlates of Carbon Isotope Composition of Leaves: A Comparative Analysis Testing for the Effects of Temperature, CO 2 and O 2 Partial Pressures and Taxonomic Relatedness on δ 13 C

1 In order to eliminate the possible effects of relatedness on associations between carbon isotope composition (6 '3C) and the altitudinal and latitudinal distributions of plant species, we have reanalysed previously published data sets using information on taxonomic relationships. 2 Although there was a significant positive effect of altitude on, we did not find the effect of latitude reported in previous studies in either of the two comparisons testing the effect of this factor. When altitude was not controlled for statistically, plant lifeform had a significant effect on 613C, with more negative 613C values in plants of greater height (forbs < shrubs < trees), and for woody plants relative to forbs. 3 However, when 6 I3C was compared among life-forms within an altitude category, life-form had no effect on carbon isotope composition for any of the three altitude categories. 4 We conclude that differences in atmospheric composition (CO2 and 02 partial pressures), as represented by altitude, are sufficient to explain observed differences in carbon isotope composition. 5 We recommend that the evolutionary comparative techniques applied here should be adopted when multispecific data sets are analysed for the purpose of inferring functional relationships in plant ecology.