Alternative Vehicle Technologies Research Articles

Energy and environmental impacts of alternative pathways for the Portuguese road transportation sector

This study presents a methodology to develop scenarios of evolution from 2010 to 2050, for energy consumption and emissions (CO2, HC, CO, NOx, PM) of the road transportation sector (light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles). The methodology is applied to Portugal and results are analyzed in a life-cycle perspective. A BAU trend and 5 additional scenarios are explored: Policy-based (Portuguese political targets considered); Liquid fuels-based (dependency on liquid fuels and no deployment of alternative refueling infrastructure); Diversified (introduction of a wide diversity of alternative vehicle technology/energy sources); Electricity vision (deployment of a wide spread electricity recharging infrastructure); Hydrogen pathway (a broad hydrogen refueling infrastructure is deployed). Total life-cycle energy consumption could decrease between 2 and 66% in 2050 relatively to 2010, while CO2 emissions will decrease between 7 and 73% in 2050 relatively to 2010. In 2050 the BAU scenario remains 30% above the 1990 level for energy consumption and CO2 emissions; the other considered scenarios lead to 4 to 29% reductions for energy consumption and 10 to 33% for CO2 emissions in 2050 compared to the BAU. Therefore, alternative vehicle technologies are required in the long-term, but changes in taxation and alternative transportation modes policies are crucial for achieving short-term impacts.

Evolving a Cleaner Grid: Uses of Natural Gas in Transportation

Achieving greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals from the transportation sector will be a monumental challenge. Various alternative vehicle technologies such as plug-in hybrids, battery and fuel cell electric vehicles offer the promise of sharply reducing end use emissions. However, when considering the full fuel cycle, it is clear that a dramatically cleaner electricity grid will also be necessary if we ever hope to meet ambitious long-term reduction goals. To demonstrate the importance of achieving this dramatically cleaner grid, our analysis implements Argonne National Laboratory’s GREET model and the latest Annual Energy Outlook data to evaluate the relative merit of various alternative vehicles on a well-to-wheel basis while taking into account projections for the evolution of the U.S. electricity supply. Fortunately, significant progress is now underway to transform the electricity sector. The emergence of substantial supplies of shale gas, at low cost and substantial abundance, has dramatically reshaped the energy landscape. There are multiple pathways for this abundant supply of natural gas to help reduce the transportation sector emissions footprint, whether through greater utilization in highly efficient natural gas combined-cycle electricity generators, direct use in compressed natural gas vehicles, or steam reformation to provide hydrogen for fuel cell vehicles. Greater reliance on high efficiency natural gas combined cycle generators, combined with the steady expansion of renewable generation and energy efficiency, is providing a critical alternative to continued reliance on dirty, legacy generators. This emerging new clean power paradigm can multiply the benefits of more rapid growth in electric drive vehicles.

Well-to-wheels life-cycle analysis of alternative fuels and vehicle technologies in China

A well-to-wheels life cycle analysis on total energy consumptions and greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions for alternative fuels and accompanying vehicle technologies has been carried out for the base year 2010 and projected to 2020 based on data gathered and estimates developed for China. The fuels considered include gasoline, diesel, natural gas, liquid fuels from coal conversion, methanol, bio-ethanol and biodiesel, electricity and hydrogen. Use of liquid fuels including methanol and Fischer–Tropsch derived from coal will significantly increase GHG emissions relative to use of conventional gasoline. Use of starch-based bio-ethanol will incur a substantial carbon disbenefit because of the present highly inefficient agricultural practice and plant processing in China. Electrification of vehicles via hybrid electric, plug-in hybrid electric (PHEV) and battery electric vehicle technologies offers a progressively improved prospect for the reduction of energy consumption and GHG emission. However, the long-term carbon emission reduction is assured only when the needed electricity is generated by zero- or low-carbon sources, which means that carbon capture and storage is a necessity for fossil-based feedstocks. A PHEV that runs on zero- or low-carbon electricity and cellulosic ethanol may be one of the most attractive fuel-vehicle options in a carbon-constrained world.

Impact of energy supply infrastructure in life cycle analysis of hydrogen and electric systems applied to the Portuguese transportation sector

Hydrogen and electric vehicle technologies are being considered as possible solutions to mitigate environmental burdens and fossil fuel dependency. Life cycle analysis (LCA) of energy use and emissions has been used with alternative vehicle technologies to assess the Well-to-Wheel (WTW) fuel cycle or the Cradle-to-Grave (CTG) cycle of a vehicle's materials. Fuel infrastructures, however, have thus far been neglected. This study presents an approach to evaluate energy use and CO2 emissions associated with the construction, maintenance and decommissioning of energy supply infrastructures using the Portuguese transportation system as a case study. Five light-duty vehicle technologies are considered: conventional gasoline and diesel (ICE), pure electric (EV), fuel cell hybrid (FCHEV) and fuel cell plug-in hybrid (FC-PHEV). With regard to hydrogen supply, two pathways are analysed: centralised steam methane reforming (SMR) and on-site electrolysis conversion. Fast, normal and home options are considered for electric chargers. We conclude that energy supply infrastructures for FC vehicles are the most intensive with 0.03–0.53 MJeq/MJ emitting 0.7–27.3 g CO2eq/MJ of final fuel. While fossil fuel infrastructures may be considered negligible (presenting values below 2.5%), alternative technologies are not negligible when their overall LCA contribution is considered. EV and FCHEV using electrolysis report the highest infrastructure impact from emissions with approximately 8.4% and 8.3%, respectively. Overall contributions including uncertainty do not go beyond 12%.

California's Hydrogen Infrastructure Funding Program

California's hydrogen funding program is part of the Alternative and Renewable Fuel and Vehicle Technology Program (ARFVTP) administered by the California Energy Commission (CEC). It's the single largest public initiative of its kind in the United States today. Together with various stakeholders, the program is designed to co-fund modern hydrogen stations for fueling hydrogen-powered vehicles. CEC's strategic hydrogen infrastructure planning focuses on early-adopter cluster communities. The program is strongly supported by a proactive group of seven auto-makers who committed specific numbers of vehicles (also transit buses) to be rolled out in order to sustain particular future fueling station locations. The program uses performance-based incentives to encourage lower cost, faster installed, higher capacity stations, and those that exceed California's 33.3% renewably-sourced hydrogen transportation fuel mandate. This allows for a more substantiated business case and helps leverage public funds for a successful outcome for the hydrogen fueling network in California.

Reducing automotive emissions—The potentials of combustion engine technologies and the power of policy

Reducing transport emissions, in particular vehicular emissions, is a key element for mitigating the risks of climate change. In much of the academic and public discourse the focus has been on alternative vehicle technologies and fuels (e.g. electric cars, fuel cells and hydrogen), whereas vehicles based on internal combustion engines have been perceived as close to their development limits. This paper offers a different perspective by demonstrating the accelerated improvement processes taking place in established combustion technologies as a result of a new competition between manufacturers and technologies, encouraged both by more stringent EU legislation and new CAFE levels in the US. The short-term perspective is complemented by an analysis of future improvement potentials in internal combustion technologies, which may be realized if efficient regulation is in place. Based on a comparison of four different regulatory approaches, the paper identifies the need for a long-term technology-neutral framework with stepwise increasing stringencies, arguing that this will encourage continual innovation and diffusion in the most effective way.

Potential vehicle fleet CO 2 reductions and cost implications for various vehicle technology deployment scenarios in Europe

The continuous rise in demand for road transportation has a significant effect on Europe's oil dependency and emissions of greenhouse gases. Alternative fuels and vehicle technology can mitigate these effects. This study analyses power-train deployment scenarios for passenger cars and light commercial vehicles in EU-27 until 2050. It considers European policy developments on vehicle CO 2 emissions, bio-energy mandates and reductions in the CO 2 footprint of the European energy mix and translates these into comprehensive scenarios for the road transport sector. It quantifies and assesses the potential impact of these scenarios on well-to-wheel (WtW) CO 2 emission reductions primary energy demand evolution, and cost aspects for the prospective vehicle owners. The study reveals that, under the deployed scenarios, the use of bio-fuel blends, technological learning and the deployment of hybrids, battery electric, plug-in hybrid and fuel cell vehicles can decrease WtW CO 2 emissions in EU-27 passenger road transport by 35–57% (compared to 2010 levels) and primary energy demand by 29–51 Mtoe as they would benefit from a future assumed decarbonised electricity and hydrogen mix in Europe. Learning effects can lead to acceptable payback periods for vehicle owners of electric drive vehicles.

Fuel cell hybrid taxi life cycle analysis

A small fleet of classic London Taxis (Black cabs) equipped with hydrogen fuel cell power systems is being prepared for demonstration during the 2012 London Olympics.This paper presents a Life Cycle Analysis for these vehicles in terms of energy consumption and CO2 emissions, focusing on the impacts of alternative vehicle technologies for the Taxi, combining the fuel life cycle (Tank-to-Wheel and Well-to-Tank) and vehicle materials Cradle-to-Grave.An internal combustion engine diesel taxi was used as the reference vehicle for the currently available technology. This is compared to battery and fuel cell vehicle configurations. Accordingly, the following energy pathways are compared: diesel, electricity and hydrogen (derived from natural gas steam reforming).Full Life Cycle Analysis, using the PCO-CENEX drive cycle, (derived from actual London Taxi drive cycles) shows that the fuel cell powered vehicle configurations have lower energy consumption (4.34MJ/km) and CO2 emissions (235g/km) than both the ICE Diesel (9.54MJ/km and 738g/km) and the battery electric vehicle (5.81MJ/km and 269g/km).

Long-term implications of alternative light-duty vehicle technologies for global greenhouse gas emissions and primary energy demands

This study assesses global light-duty vehicle (LDV) transport in the upcoming century, and the implications of vehicle technology advancement and fuel-switching on greenhouse gas emissions and primary energy demands. Five different vehicle technology scenarios are analyzed with and without a CO 2 emissions mitigation policy using the GCAM integrated assessment model: a reference internal combustion engine vehicle scenario, an advanced internal combustion engine vehicle scenario, and three alternative fuel vehicle scenarios in which all LDVs are switched to natural gas, electricity, or hydrogen by 2050. The emissions mitigation policy is a global CO 2 emissions price pathway that achieves 450 ppmv CO 2 at the end of the century with reference vehicle technologies. The scenarios demonstrate considerable emissions mitigation potential from LDV technology; with and without emissions pricing, global CO 2 concentrations in 2095 are reduced about 10 ppmv by advanced ICEV technologies and natural gas vehicles, and 25 ppmv by electric or hydrogen vehicles. All technological advances in vehicles are important for reducing the oil demands of LDV transport and their corresponding CO 2 emissions. Among advanced and alternative vehicle technologies, electricity- and hydrogen-powered vehicles are especially valuable for reducing whole-system emissions and total primary energy.

Cost-Effective Approaches to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions through Public Transportation in Los Angeles, California

The Los Angeles County, California, Metropolitan Transportation Authority (Metro) commissioned a study of strategic options for the agency to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This study compared a comprehensive range of strategies on potential GHG reductions and cost-effectiveness, in dollars per ton of GHG emissions reduced. Sixteen strategies were analyzed in four categories: promotion of alternative travel modes, transit service, vehicle technology, and facility energy use. Strategies with the greatest potential for GHG emission reductions (regardless of cost) included transit-oriented development, vanpool subsidy, onboard railcar energy storage, and ridesharing and transit programs for employers. The first three would save or generate money for Metro. Ridesharing and transit programs have the potential for net revenue generation, but the results were uncertain. Four more strategies would reduce smaller amounts of emissions while also saving money for the agency: recycled water for bus washing, low-water sanitary fixtures, Red Line tunnel lighting retrofits, and facility lighting efficiency. Understanding opportunities for GHG reductions requires expertise in transit operations, vehicles, facilities, and planning. Cost-effectiveness and total reduction potential can be supporting criteria in making funding decisions. The largest GHG reduction opportunities for Metro are typically those that reduce vehicle miles traveled, whereas many of the most cost-effective strategies address GHG emissions from facility energy use. Cost-effectiveness of a strategy to Metro can depend greatly on receipt of external funding, including federal funds or utility rebates. In some cases, the range of cost-effectiveness for a strategy is so great that it is not useful to inform decision making without some further definition.

Economic impact of the integration of alternative vehicle technologies into the New Zealand vehicle fleet

A multi-regional integrated energy systems model is developed to assess the economic impact of hydrogen fuel cell, hydrogen internal combustion, and battery electric technologies on the economy of New Zealand. Base case results suggest that a hydrogen fuel dominant vehicle fleet offers economic savings over a conventional fleet but requires the largest sequestration capacity as 75% of hydrogen fuel production is derived from fossil fuel. When the oil price is varied from US$120 to US$240 per barrel in 2030, and the carbon tax varied from US$30 to US$90 per tonne of CO2 equivalent, the change in savings ranges from −65% to +25%.

A Comparison of the Economic and Energy-Security Benefits of Natural Gas and Electrified Vehicles

We compare the financial benefits of displacing oil using three alternative-vehicle technologies: natural gas (NGVs), battery-electric (BEVs), and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). On a cost-per-barrel basis, NGVs would be the least expensive way to displace oil, while PHEVs would be the most expensive. BEVs would displace the most oil. Furthermore, though the BEV case has the highest upfront cost, its payback rate is almost two-times faster than the NGV case. At current energy prices and without considering environmental costs, none of these technologies make financial sense. However, given historical relationships between oil, natural gas and electricity prices, each alternative would make financial sense if oil prices increased to at least $150 per barrel, and BEVs would offer the fastest payback. Finally, though electricity prices are the most volatile, the financial cost of fuel-price uncertainty is lowest for the BEV case. Moreover, the cost of uncertainty is unimportant for all cases, including gasoline-powered vehicles, and should not be an important part of this debate.

Air quality and environmental impacts of alternative vehicle technologies in Ontario, Canada

This study is focused on the province-wide emissions in Ontario, Canada and urban air pollution in the city of Toronto. The life-cycle (LC) impacts of utilizing alternative fuels for transportation purposes is considered in terms of six major stressors for climate change, acidification and urban air quality. The vehicles considered are plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) and fuel cell plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (FCPHEVs). Modeling of the penetration rates for these types of vehicles has been completed based on the maximum base-load capacity of Ontario's electricity grid to accommodate the generation of hydrogen and charging of vehicles using grid electricity. Results show that the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from adoption of PHEVs or FCVs will exceed 3% of the current emissions from the transportation sector in Ontario while FCPHEVs may achieve almost twice this reduction. All vehicles exhibit similar impacts on the precursors for photochemical smog although the province-wide effects differ significantly.

Regional On-Road Vehicle Running Emissions Modeling and Evaluation for Conventional and Alternative Vehicle Technologies

This study presents a methodology for estimating high-resolution, regional on-road vehicle emissions and the associated reductions in air pollutant emissions from vehicles that utilize alternative fuels or propulsion technologies. The fuels considered are gasoline, diesel, ethanol, biodiesel, compressed natural gas, hydrogen, and electricity. The technologies considered are internal combustion or compression engines, hybrids, fuel cell, and electric. Road link-based emission models are developed using modal fuel use and emission rates applied to facility- and speed-specific driving cycles. For an urban case study, passenger cars were found to be the largest sources of HC, CO, and CO(2) emissions, whereas trucks contributed the largest share of NO(x) emissions. When alternative fuel and propulsion technologies were introduced in the fleet at a modest market penetration level of 27%, their emission reductions were found to be 3-14%. Emissions for all pollutants generally decreased with an increase in the market share of alternative vehicle technologies. Turnover of the light duty fleet to newer Tier 2 vehicles reduced emissions of HC, CO, and NO(x) substantially. However, modest improvements in fuel economy may be offset by VMT growth and reductions in overall average speed.

Disaggregate Demand Analyses for Conventional and Alternative Fueled Automobiles: A Review

ABSTRACT This paper offers a critical overview of the full spectrum of household discrete choice–based automobile demand models. Data collection methods, modeling approaches, and the relevant explanatory factors are the primary themes of this review. Furthermore, we examine research methods for assessing the demand for alternative fueled vehicles with an emphasis on stated choices analysis. Overall, this review puts into perspective theoretical assumptions and empirical results for the development of modeling systems capable of assessing market shares and benefits of policy interventions regarding both conventional and alternative fueled vehicle technologies.

Life cycle cost analysis of alternative vehicles and fuels in Thailand

High crude oil prices and pollution problems have drawn attention to alternative vehicle technologies and fuels for the transportation sector. The question is: What are the benefits/costs of these technologies for society? To answer this question in a quantitative way, a web-based model ( http://vehiclesandfuels.memebot.com) has been developed to calculate the societal life cycle costs, the consumer life cycle costs and the tax for different vehicle technologies. By comparing these costs it is possible to draw conclusions about the social benefit and the related tax structure. The model should help to guide decisions toward optimality, which refers to maximum social benefit. The model was applied to the case of Thailand. The life cycle cost of 13 different alternative vehicle technologies in Thailand have been calculated and the tax structure analyzed.

Incorporating stakeholders' perspectives into models of new technology diffusion: The case of fuel-cell vehicles

The literature on the modeling of diffusion of technologies typically uses historical data to calibrate a model. For cases where data on the diffusion of comparable technologies are not available and where high multi-sector stakes are involved, models that use more specific information may be useful. The potential transition to alternative transportation vehicle technologies and fuels, like fuel-cell vehicles and hydrogen, would be an example of such cases. We propose an integration of theoretical frameworks on the diffusion of innovations with data on stakeholders' opinions, to develop estimates of FCVs' market-share evolution. Our estimates of the time scales required for the market, particularly for the initial stages, are longer than those obtained in other studies.

ALTERNATIVE VEHICLE TECHNOLOGIES AND FUELS IN SCENARIOS FOR ATMOSPHERIC EMISSIONS IN LONDON

Alternative fuels and vehicle technologies for road transport are receiving increasing support as a result of climate change mitigation policies and local air quality regulations. This study attempts to estimate the emission reductions of major air pollutants (NOx, PM, HC and CO 2) that might be expected from the introduction of alternative fuels and technologies in London by the year 2020. A number of alternative scenarios for the road transport system have been developed, and their corresponding emissions compared to those arising from a baseline scenario, consisting exclusively of conventional fuels and engines. The results confirmed that by 2020 the emissions of NOx, PM and HC from a conventional vehicle fleet would be greatly decreased as a result of more stringent vehicle emission standards. Significant additional improvements could be achieved by the introduction of hydrogen-fuel cell vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, natural gas and biofuels. It was found that the emissions of the principal pollutants of concern in London, NOx and PM 10, show similar patterns of reduction. The results also imply that the anticipated increase in conventional vehicle efficiency would only deliver a minimal 2 percent reduction in CO 2 vehicle emissions relative to the present, but greater reductions were achieved in all the alternative scenarios.

Assessment of the environmental benefits of transport and stationary fuel cells

Fuel cells (FCs) offer significant environmental benefits over competing technologies and hence the environment is a strong driving force behind the development of FC systems for transport and stationary applications. This paper provides a comprehensive comparison of FC and competing systems, and points out strengths and weaknesses of the different FC systems, suggesting areas for improvement. The results presented build on earlier work [D. Hart, G. Hörmandinger, Initial assessment of the environmental characteristics of fuel cells and competing technologies, ETSU F/02/00111/REP/1, ETSU, Harwell, UK, 1997.] and provide a detailed analysis of a wider range of systems. The analysis takes the form of a model, which compares system emissions (global, regional and local pollutants) and energy consumption on a full fuel cycle basis. It considers a variety of primary energy sources, intermediate fuel supply steps and FC systems for transport and stationary end-uses. These are compared with alternative systems for transport and stationary applications. Energy and pollutant emission reductions of FC systems compared to alternative vehicle technology vary considerably, though all FC technologies show reductions in energy use and CO 2 emissions of at least 20%; as well as reductions of several orders of magnitude in regulated pollutants compared to the base-case vehicle. The location of emissions is also of importance, with most emissions in the case of FC vehicles occurring in the fuel supply stage. The energy, CO 2 and regulated emissions advantages of FC systems for distributed and baseload electricity are more consistent than for transport applications, with reductions in regulated pollutants generally larger than one order of magnitude compared to competing technologies. For CHP applications, the advantages of FC systems with regard to regulated pollutants remain large. However, energy and CO 2 emission advantages are reduced, depending largely on the assumptions made for the heat/power ratio and system comparison.

Long-term challenges for inland transport in the European Union: 1997–2010: Consequences for transport fuel economy and use

Transport system energy use depends on a wide range of factors, which are all affected by the changing transport policy agenda in the European Union (EU). More focus on congestion, CO 2 emissions and, to a lesser extent, the geographical differentiation in air quality problems is expected. Undue reliance on existing policy instruments would mean that these problems could not be dealt with (cost) effectively. Therefore, new policy tools, such as a revitalization of rail freight, road pricing, differentiated vehicle taxes and measures to deal with the ‘no-regrets’ potential in passenger car fuel economy are likely to be required. These policies could constrain growth in fuel use and CO 2 emissions from transport over the next 15 years, but further reductions would require a breakthrough in alternative vehicle technology.