Altaic Research Articles

On Dolgan haŋa ‘One’s Elder Brother’s Wife’

Abstract Dolgan is essentially a dialect of Yakut, but for ethno-historical and administrative reasons counted as a separate language. One of the basic phonetic differences between Dolgan and Yakut is the h- (< s- < y- and č-) in Dolgan vs. s- (< y- and č-) in Yakut. In other words, the initial secondary s of Yakut developed further into h in Dolgan. Up to the present, only haŋas (< saŋas < *yeŋ(g)eč) with the diminutive suffix -s (< *-č) was known to us as the Dolgan word for ‘elder brother’s wife’. Now, we know the form haŋa without the diminutive suffix -s thanks to the fieldwork studies on Dolgan of the ASK REAL (The Altaic Society of Korea, Researches on the Endangered Altaic Languages).

Relationship between the Altaic Languages and the Korean Language

Over the years, many Asian and Altaic linguists have argued about whether the Korean language belong to the Altaic family. This research give an evidence that Korean, Japanese, and the Altaic languages including Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic share unique characteristics in vocabularies, sentence structure, and sound. It not only proposes the concept of such languages, but also explains how linguists have attempted to define the idea, and what more needs to be clarified for the Altaic Theory to be factual.

Causative/Inchoative Verb Alternation in Altaic Languages: Turkish, Turkmen, Nanai and Mongolian

The purpose of the study is two-fold. First, a statistical analysis of the morphology of causative/inchoative verb alternation is carried out in Japanese and in 13 Altaic languages, i.e., Turkish, Turkmen, Nanai, Khakas, Udihe, Uzbek, Sakha, Manchu, Kyrgyz, Mongolian, Kazakh, Ewen, and Azerbaijani. The findings reveal that causative/inchoative verb alternation (a) can be realised via the insertion of an infix (‘-uul-’, ‘-e-’, ‘-g-’, etc.); (b) can be inchoative root-based, with transitive verbs derived via attaching a suffix to the inchoative verb roots (‘-dur-’, ‘-t-’, ‘-ir-’, ‘-dyr-’, ‘-wəən-’, ‘-buwəən-’, ‘-r-’, ‘-wənə-’, ‘-nar-’, ‘-ier-’, ‘-er-’, ‘-bu-’, ‘-ʊkan-’); (c) can be causative verb-based, with inchoative verbs being derived via attaching a suffix to the causative verb roots (‘-p-’, ‘-n-’, ‘-ul-’, ‘-il-’); and (d) can be realised via consonant alternation (‘-r-’ (transitive) / ‘-n-’ (intransitive); ‘-t-’ (transitive) / ‘-n-’ (intransitive)). This study further attempts to pin down the affiliation of these languages with the Japanese language. It compares the morphological findings with Japanese bound morphemes in causative/inchoative verb alternation and then delves into the phonological issues, i.e., consonant alternation and vowel harmony. A proposal is put forward: phonologically and morphologically, Japanese has a good deal of resemblance to the 13 Altaic languages.

Genetic diversity, forensic feature, and phylogenetic analysis of Guizhou Tujia population via 19 X-STRs.

BackgroundX‐chromosome short tandem repeats (X‐STRs) with unique sex‐linkage inheritance models play a complementary role in forensic science. Guizhou is a multiethnic province located in southwest China and some genetic evidence focusing on X‐STRs for various minorities was reported. However, population data of Guizhou Tujia are scarce.MethodsA total of 507 Guizhou Tujia individuals were profiled using the AGCU X‐19 STR kit. Allele frequencies and forensic parameters were calculated. Additionally, population genetic relationships between Guizhou Tujia and other 19 populations were explored.ResultsA total of 257 alleles with the allele frequencies ranged from 0.0013 to 0.6098 were found. The combined power of discrimination in males and females and mean exclusion chances in all case scenarios were all greater than 0.99999. Population comparisons showed Guizhou Tujia had a homogeneity with all Han populations from different administrative regions, and other ethnic populations residing in Guizhou, while had obviously genetic heterogeneity with the Altaic family populations except Xibe.ConclusionNineteen X‐STRs can afford a reliable and informative database of Guizhou Tujia population for human identification and paternity testing, especially in complex biological relations. The genetic relationships of Chinese are significantly influenced by the geographic position and ethnolinguistic origin.

The Stable Vocabulary of the Altai Language and its Northern Dialects

The article presents a study of a stable vocabulary (The Leipzig-Jakarta list). The work examines the lexical fund of the Altai language in comparison with its northern dialects. The research reveals common and different elements in the analyzed material. Dictionaries of the Altai language and its northern dialects served as sources of the analyzed material. Dictionaries, which are presented in monographs on the northern dialects of the Altai language of N.A. Baskakov, are also used. It should be noted that in the works on northern dialects there is often a phonetic variation in the graphic appearance of words in one or another dialect, which is explained by the fact that the languages of the speakers of these dialects are not standardized. The spelling of words reflects the pronunciation, recorded in different speakers of the same dialect. The materials on the northern dialects are characterized by the use of different graphemes to denote the same sounds. The northern dialects of the Altai language include the tuba dialect, Chalkan (Chelkan) and Kumandin dialects. Their speakers are currently called Tubalars, Chelkans (Chalkans) and Kumandins, respectively. The traditional place of residence of these ethnic groups of Altai is the northern part of the Altai Republic. Significant part of the Kumandins also lives in the areas near the border of the Altai Republic close to the Altai Krai. The Tubalars, Chelkans and Kumandins received the status of indigenous peoples. The language, life and traditions of the northern Altai people have their own characteristics that distinguish them from the southern Altai people. The northern dialects of the Altai language are characterized by the fact that in their vocabulary there are more Turkic elements than in the South Altai dialects that are preserved since ancient times.

The State of the Art of the Genetic Relationship of Japonic: the Turanian and Altaic Hypotheses

Abstract The history of several attempts, both long-range and short-range, at linking the Japanese language is surveyed and scrutinized in the present paper. Special attention is given to some earlier proposals which are largely ignored by current scholarship, albeit it can be demonstrated that they still define certain long-range comparisons which continue to enjoy some popularity among modern scholars. The two most important hypotheses examined in the present paper are those linking Japanese (Japonic) with the languages that have been classified under the labels “Turanian” and “Altaic”. It is shown that the (Macro-)Altaic hypothesis, recently also called “Transeurasian”, has close historical connections with the Turanian hypothesis and its predecessors.

The impact of early trans-Eurasian exchange on animal utilization in northern China during 5000–2500 BP

Transcontinental exchange emerged and intensified in northern China since the late fifth millennium BP (Before present), especially in the arc, which was the core area of the eastern part of the tr...

WAYS OF RENDERING FUTURE TENSE FORMS FROM KAZAKH INTO ENGLISH

(BASED ON THE NOVEL “КӨШПЕНДІЛЕР”) Abstract. The article deals with the different types of transformation used in the process of translating from Kazakh into English by applying the principle of comparison. For the principle of comparison makes it possible for us to establish differences and similarities of heterogeneous languages as far as Kazakh and English languages are syntactically, morphologically and structurally different. Moreover, a close comparative study of languages not only helps us detect peculiarities of different languages but also directs us to a deeper analysis research results. English belongs to the Germanic group of language. The Kazakh pertains to the Turkic group of the Altaic family. Concerning the morphological type English is inflected and notable for its analytical character. Kazakh is an agglutinative language. As to grammar the principle means of expression in language possessing an analytical character is the order of the words and use of words and use of function words (function words, word order and intonation pattern). The grammatical inflections are the principal means used in Kazakh. Though the rest of grammatical means are also used but they are of less frequency than the grammatical inflections.

Günümüzde Kuzey ve Kuzey Batı Çin’de Konuşulan Çin – Tibet Dilleri Dışındaki Dillerin Durumu II Altay Dilleri 2 – Tunguzca

Günümüzde, Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti’nde, resmen azınlık milliyeti olarak tanınmış beş tane Tunguz topluluğu mevcuttur. Bunlar; Evenk, Oroçen, Heje, Mançu ve Sibe milliyetleridir. Ancak resmen tanınmış olan bu Tunguz milliyetlerinin dillik temellerden yoksun olduğu görülmektedir. Evenk adı altında, Solon Evenk Tunguzları, Hamnigan Evenk Tunguzları ve Mançurya Rengeyiği Evenk Tunguzları tek bir milliyet olarak sınıflandırılmaktadırlar. Oysa Solon Evenk Tunguzlarının konuştukları lehçe, diğer ikisinin konuştukları lehçelerden tamamen başka bir Tunguz lehçesidir. Buna mukabil, konuştukları lehçe, Hamnigan ve Mançurya Rengeyiği Evenek Tunguzlarının konuştukları lehçeler ile oldukça benzeşen Oroçen Tunguzları, ayrı bir milliyet olarak tanınmaktadır. Heje adı altında tanınan Tunguz milliyeti de en az Evenk kimliği kadar, dillik bakımdan sorunludur. Bu isim altında, Rusya Federasyonu’nda konuşulan iki ayrı Tunguz lehçesinin Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti’ndeki uzantılarını konuşan Nanay ve Kilen Tunguzları, tek milliyet olarak tasnif edilmiştir. Sibe Tunguzları da aslında Mançu Tunguzlarının bir kabilesi olmaları ve Mançu Tunguzcasının bir ağzını konuşmalarına rağmen, resmen Sibe ve Mançu adı altında iki ayrı milliyet ve dil tanınmaktadır. Bu beş Tunguz milliyeti tarafından konuşulan dokuz ayrı Tunguz lehçesinin İç Moğolistan ve Mançurya’da yoğunlaştığı görülmektedir. Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti’nde Tunguz lehçelerinin birden fazla lehçe ile temsil edildiği bir diğer coğrafya, Doğu Türkistan’dır. Bu dokuz lehçenin tamamı, farklı oranlarda yok olma tehlikesi ile karşı karşıyadır. Hatta bazı lehçeler ya tamamen ya da kısmen yok olmanın eşiğine gelmişlerdir. Ancak dünya yüzünde gelecekte yaşama ihtimali olan iki Tunguz lehçesinin her ikisi de yine Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti’nde konuşulmaktadır. Bunların biri İç Moğolistan’ın Hülün Buir aymağında konuşulan Solon Evenk Tunguzcası, diğeri ise Doğu Türkistan’ İli Muhtar Kazak İli’nde konuşulan Sibe Mançu Tunguzcasıdır.

Investigating translated Chinese and its variants using machine learning

AbstractTranslations are generally assumed to share universal features that distinguish them from texts that are originally written in the same language. Thus, we can argue that these translations constitute their own variety of a language, often called translationese. However, translations are also influenced by their source languages and thus show different characteristics depending on the source language. Consequently, we argue that these variants constitute different “dialects” of translations into the same target language. Studies using machine learning techniques on Indo-European languages have investigated the universal characteristics of translationese and how translations from various source languages differ. However, for typologically very different languages such as Chinese, there are only few corpus studies that tap into the intricate relation between translations and the originals, as well as into the relations among translations themselves. In this contribution, we investigate the following questions: (1) What are the characteristics of Chinese translationese, both in general and with respect to different source languages? (2) Can we find differences not only at the lexical but also on the syntactic level? and (3) Based on the characteristics found in the previous questions, which of the proposed laws and universals can we corroborate based on our evidence from Chinese? We use machine learning to operationalize determining the importance of different characteristics and comparing their importance for our Chinese dataset with characteristics previously reported in studies on English. In addition, our methodology allows us to add syntactic features, which have rarely been used to study translations into Chinese. Our results show that Chinese translations as a whole can be reliably distinguished from non-translations, even based on only five features. More interestingly, typological traces from the source languages can often be found in their translations, therefore creating what we call dialects of translationese. For instance, translations from two Altaic languages exhibit more noun repetition and less frequent use of pronouns. Additionally, some characteristics that are not discriminative for English work well for Chinese, possibly because the distance between Chinese and the source languages is greater than that in English studies.

Case markers and language contact in the Gansu-Qinghai linguistic area

AbstractThis paper examines the forms and usage of case markers in the Gan-Qing dialects, the Amdo Tibetan and Altaic languages in the Gansu-Qinghai linguistic area (GQLA), including datives, accusatives, absolutives, comitatives, instrumentals, ablatives, locatives, genitives, comparatives and reflexive possessives. We come to two conclusions: (1) most markers in Gan-Qing dialects are widely distributed, but some are narrowly distributed and (2) case markers in Gan-Qing dialects are overwhelmingly from the Chinese inventory rather than direct copied from Amdo Tibetan or Altaic languages. These findings enable us to shed light on the situation of language contact in the GQLA and illustrate that there are two major strata of contact in the GQLA.

Epidemiological and comparative genomic analysis of Bacillus anthracis isolated from northern Vietnam.

To understand the epidemiological and genetic background of anthrax cases occurring in Vietnam from 2011 to 2015, we surveilled and genetically analyzed Bacillus anthracis isolated in the north of the country. Epidemiological surveillance showed that most human cutaneous anthrax cases occurred in association with animal dissection. Whole-genome sequences were obtained from six B. anthracis strains from human patients with cutaneous anthrax in the endemic area. Comparative genomic analysis showed that the genetic homogeneity among Vietnamese B. anthracis strains was very high. All Vietnamese B. anthracis strains belonged to the canSNP lineage of A.Br.011/009, which mostly consists of strains of the trans-Eurasian (TEA) group, including the most closely related strain, Carbosap. To clarify the genetic diversity of Vietnamese strains and strains belonging to A.Br.011/009 and A.Br.008/011 canSNP lineages, we applied a reference genome-based single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and gene-by-gene genomic analysis (whole-genome MLST) strategy. The phylogeny from core genome SNPs revealed that the Vietnamese strains were positioned close to each other; moreover, several SNPs specific to Vietnamese B. anthracis were identified. Whole-genome MLST analysis revealed the differences in the number of SNPs between Vietnamese strains, which could enable discrimination at the strain level.

ZAMİR /N/’SİNİN TÜRKÇEDEKİ FONEMORFOLOJİK GELİŞİMİ

Altay dillerindeki, 3. kişi kategorisiyle alakalı zamir ve iyelik çekimlerinin bağlantı noktalarında görülen zamir /n/’sinin kökeni hakkında bugüne dek birçok çalışma yapılmıştır. Zamir /n/’si, Türk lehçelerinde [n, n̪, ŋ] alofonlarıyla sesletilmekte veya /n/>/n̪/>/Ø/ gelişimiyle eriyerek yüzey yapıda kaybolmaktadır. Yapılan çalışmalarda zamir /n/’sinin eskicil 3. kişi zamiriyle ilişkili bir morfolojik kalıntı olduğu konusunda iddialar ortaya atılmış, ayrıca zamir /n/’sinin yardımcı ses olduğuna dair görüşler dile getirilmiştir. Bununla birlikte zamir /n/’sinin Altay dilleri ve Türk lehçelerindeki fonetik varlığına dair araştırmaların sayısı oldukça azdır. İşte bu makalede, zamir /n/’si; yalnızca barındırdığı sesin morfolojisi açısından değil fonem teorisinin imkânlarından da faydalanılarak fonolojik geçmişi yönüyle ele alınmaktadır. Ayrıca önceki çalışmalardan farklı olarak zamir /n/’si kullanıldığı konumlar için ayrı ayrı değerlendirilmiş; üretken-dönüşümlü dil bilgisi bağlamında zamir /n/’si ve Ana Altaycada bulunan eskicil teklik kategorisi eki *+n, yapı bakımından karşılaştırılmıştır. Böylelikle zamir /n/’sinin fonemorfolojik tarihi hakkında yeni bilgilerin elde edilmesi amaçlanmıştır.

BLAŽEK, V. Altaic Languages – History of research, survey, classification, and a sketch of comparative grammar, in collaboration with M. SCHWARZ and O. SRBA, Brno: Masaryk University Press, 2019, pp. 360, ISBN: 978-80-210-9321-8

BLAŽEK, V. Altaic Languages – History of research, survey, classification, and a sketch of comparative grammar, in collaboration with M. SCHWARZ and O. SRBA, Brno: Masaryk University Press, 2019.

Diachronic Interpretation of Phonomorphological and Semantic Regularities of Nostratic (Based on *HuḲa “eye”)

The diachronic interpretation of Indo-European *hṷekṷ- / *heuk- “eye, to see”, Altaic *uka- “to notice, to understand” and Afro-Asiatic *Hwq- “to know”, originating from Nostratic *HuḲa “eye, to see”, allowed to establish both divergent and convergent types of linguistic relationship among them, for which the close (Indo-European, Altaic, Afro-Asiatic) and remote / distant (Indo-European / Afro-Asiatic and Altaic) types of language relationship have been established, depending on the action of the main phonomorphological and semantic regularities.The degree of manifestation of phonomorphological laws indicates a close type of language relationship among Indo-European, Altaic and Afro-Asiatic language families. They are: 1) the law on the three-letter / three-phonemic root structure of an archetype (according to E. Benvenist), which corresponds to the law on the consonant root (according to A G. Belova): it helped to fix three phonemes in Indo-European *hṷekṷ- / *heuk-, Altaic *uka- and Afro-Asiatic *Hwq-, as well as to trace the reflexes of this structure in the genetic data material of these language families; 2) the law of the mora is fixed in the Indo-European *hṷekṷ- / *heuk-, Altaic *uka- and Afro-Asiatic *Hwq-, the forms of which correspond to a monosyllable structure, and mono- and multisyllable structures have been observed in the genetic data material; 3) the process of spirantisation consists in weakening the consonant phoneme /q/, i.e. the reflection /q/ into /k/ and /x/; 4) the process of “pharyngisation” can be traced at the end of monosyllabic words, where it could occur by analogy with those forms of the word where the consonant was intervocal; 5) the law on the pronunciation of short vowel phonemes /a/ and /u/, where such features are represented: 1) the degree of solution of the oral cavity; 2) hardness / softness (low tonality / high tonality); 3) absence or presence of labilisation; 6) the law of prosody, which consists in the realisation of stress in accordance with various languages; 7) the law of an open syllable.The degree of phonomorphological manifestations indicates a remote / distant form of language relationship between Indo-European / Afro-Asiatic and Altaic language families, where one of the provisions of the phonetic prohibitions of Jucquо, i.e. when the initial and final laryngals are not allowed, is traced in the Indo-European *hṷekṷ- / *heuk- and Afro-Asiatic *Hwq-.The degree of manifestation of semantic laws indicates a close type of language relationship among Indo-European, Altaic and Afro-Asiatic language families, where 2 lexico-semantic variants (LSV) were fixed: 1) somatism; 2) action. If in the Indo-European *hṷekṷ- / *heuk- “eye, to see” 2 LSVs are fixed: 1) somatism; 2) action, but in the Altaic *uka- “to notice, to understand”, including Turkic *uk(ā)- “to raise, to listen” and Mongolian *uk- “to notice”, as well as the Afro-Asiatic *Hwq- “to know” – only 1 LSV – 2) action.

Whole Genome Sequencing for Studying Bacillus anthracis from an Outbreak in the Abruzzo Region of Italy.

Anthrax is a serious infectious disease caused by the gram-positive and spore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis. In Italy, anthrax is an endemic disease with sporadic cases each year and few outbreaks, especially in Southern Italy. However, new foci have been discovered in zones without previous history of anthrax. During summer 2016, an outbreak of anthrax caused the death of four goats in the Abruzzo region, where the disease had not been reported before. In order to investigate the outbreak, we sequenced one strain and compared it to 19 Italian B. anthracis genomes. Furthermore, we downloaded 71 whole genome sequences representing the global distribution of canonical SNP lineages and used them to verify the phylogenetic positioning. To this end, we analyzed and compared the genome sequences using canonical SNPs and the whole genome SNP-based analysis. Our results demonstrate that the outbreak strain belonged to the Trans-Eurasian (TEA) group A.Br.011/009, which is the predominant clade in Central-Southern Italy. In conclusion, the high genomic relatedness of the Italian TEA strains suggests their evolution from a common ancestor, while the spread is supposedly driven by trade as well as human and transhumance activities. Here, we demonstrated the capabilities of whole genome sequencing (WGS), which can be used as a tool for outbreak analyses and surveillance activities.

Развитие и семантика колоронимов «көк» и «кöк» в казахском и алтайском языках

The purpose of the article is to determine the origin of the color term kөk / kӧk in the Kazakh and Altaic languages, to trace the development of these tokens in Turkic languages and cultures, and to identify their specific usage. The research was conducted on the basis of the dictionaries of the Kazakh and Altaic languages as well as the samples from Kazakh and Altaic prose. A historical comparative and descriptive methods have been used. The study highlighted the main meanings of the color designations kөk ~ kök in the Kazakh and Altaic languages: blue, green and grey. They are equally common in the Kazakh and Altaic languages. Based on the meaning ‘green’ developed the meaning ‘unripe’. As for the meaning ‘gray-haired’, in the Altaic language it is used to indicate the color of the hair, while in the Kazakh language – only a beard and mustaches. In general, this meaning is manifested in contexts related to age: in the Altaic language it is old age, in Kazakh – mature age. Further the article describes synonyms of color designation kөk ~ kök. It has been shown that the color synonyms kөgіldіr, zеngіr (‘blue’) are used only in the Kazakh language, in Altaic kӧk means both blue colors. In the Kazakh language comparison of the color with such natural objects as the sky, ice, and salt was found to be more developed, for example: aspan (dai) kөk (lit.: like blue sky). The paper presents an interesting function of color designation kөk / kӧk which is intensification. It is observed in both languages; with the help of these tokens negative characteristics of the object are enhanced, for example: kaz. kөk zhalkau (lit.: blue lazy – bones), alt. kӧk tenek (lit.: complete fool). More significant differences are manifested in phraseological units, i. e. by further development of semantics in the languages. In the Kazakh language, the lexeme kөk functions as a component in phraseological units, denoting thinness and emaciation of a person, for example: kөk jambas (lit.: blue thigh) 1) very thin; 2) weak from old age, a feeble old man. In the Altaic language, such use of the lexeme kөk has not been noted. In general, we can speak of rich idiomaticity of the color scheme kөk in the Kazakh language in contrast to the Altaic language. There are also differences in the figurative use of these tokens in the structure of phraseological units: in Kazakh, these, as a rule, denote negative values, negative emotions, or associations with height, a cherished dream; in Altaic – they are used as the intensifiers ‘quite, completely”: kӧk ӱlӱsh (completely wet; lit.: blue wet). Comparing the two languages, we came to the conclusion that their greatest specificity is observed in phraseological units, which confirms the ability of phraseological units and fixed word combinations to reflect an ethnic world view and to be true keepers of the culture of the people.

Towards an RRG analysis of constructions with a morphologcal causaive in some Altaic languages

The present paper examines Bashkir and Kalmyk construction formed from transitive verbs by means of causative suffixes1. We refer to these constructions to “constructions with a morphological causative”. The paper also references other Altaic languages (Mishar Tatar, Nanai, Tuvinian, Khakas). The main focus of the paper is on the valence-increasing behavior of causatives. Primary attention is drawn to the case marking of the Causee since Altaic languages allow several options for that. The paper describes in detail the existing alternation and reviews prior explanations of this phenomenon. It then couches the explanation for the alternation within the framework of Role and Reference Grammar. The analysis identifies that Altaic constructions in question are somehow peculiar compared to general trends. After discussing the advantages and drawbacks of various theoretical interpretations of this peculiarity, we conclude that it is best to link two different causative constructions to two different logical structures. We also suggest constructional schemata for Kalmyk and Bashkir to include in the Linking Algorithm.

Семантика и функция форм императива в алтайском языке

The paper is devoted to the analysis of imperative forms of the Altai language. In the system of imperatives, we have identified 11 positive forms (=Ø=; CA=; =GÏn / =GÏŋ (rare); =(Ï)GAr / =AAR=; =SAgAr; =GÏlA; =SÏn; =AAK; =AAktAr; =y/AAlï: =y/AAlïk / =AAlïktAr (rare) and 10 negative (all form with a particle of negation, but the form on =GÏn / =GÏŋ). It is considered that the imperative has a complete paradigm in grammatical descriptions of the Siberian Turkic languages. In this regard, the Altai language has a particular position: the im-perative-Hortative of the 1st person unit number at =Aiyn is derived from the paradigm and referred to the indicators of the desired mood, i.e. the optative. A specific feature of the Altai imperative is the variety of forms of the 1st person non-singular number denoting two or more participants in the action. This type of imperative is defined as a call to action distinguishing between minimal and extended inclusiveness. For the first time in the Altai language, one can observe a grammatical opposition in time with two paradigms as in the Yakut language: “the imperative of the present tense” and “the imperative of the future tense.” The first group ex-presses the forms of 2nd dual numbers at =AAK / =AAktAr, and =AAlïk / =AAlïktAr; the se-cond group is form at =AAlï. Thus, it turns out that the lower the degree of flatness, the great-er the distance from the moment of speaking. The system of imperative forms includes the form of multiplicity on =GYLA with the value of a categorical imperative.

Модальные формы с семантикой желания в алтайском языке

In the following article, we analyze the forms of the optative in the Altai language. The modal meaning of volition in the Altai language is expressed by various means: lexical, grammatical, analytical means, and idiomatic constructions. In the article, we offer a brief overview of the means of expression of volition. The primary focus of our study is the desiderative form with =(Ы)ксА=, along with 5 synthetic forms of optative mood: =ГАй, =СА, =(А)йын, =СЫн, =БАзЫн. We show that in the modern Altai language, the finite form with =(Ы)ксА= is widely used in spoken language, with limited compatibility. The form with =(Ы)ксА= is used with the lexical-semantic group of verbs denoting physiological, psychological, or social needs of the subject, for example: јаныкса ʻto want to go homeʼ from the verb јан= ʻto go homeʼ, кӧрӱксе= ʻto want to seeʼ from the verb кӧр= ʻto look’, etc. This form denotes the subject’s strong desire to do something related to their inner feelings and emotions experienced currently and at the moment of speech, or in the past, a desire aimed towards the future which the subject is confident about. Because this form’s semantic compatibility is limited, and the modal meaning of volition expressed by this form is defined as ‘non-locutive’ modality, we believe that it should not, at this stage of the language’s development, be viewed as optative mood, but rather as a non-productive word-forming affix.