Allylic Radical Intermediates Research Articles

Photoredox chromium and cobalt dual catalysis for carbonyl allylation with butadiene via allyl radical intermediates

The allylation of aldehydes with dienes was achieved using cobalt and chromium catalysts through a metal-hydride hydrogen atom transfer (MHAT) pathway. The novel reaction resulted in the formation of various homo-allyl alcohols with excellent diastereoselectivity.

Sustainable radical approaches for cross electrophile coupling to synthesize trifluoromethyl- and allyl-substituted tert-alcohols

SummaryTrifluoromethylated molecules have gained privileged recognition among the medicinal and pharmaceutical chemists. Sustainable photoredox- and electrochemical processes were employed to facilitate the relatively less explored radical cross-electrophile coupling to access trifluoromethyl- and allyl-substituted tert-alcohols. Reactions proceed through trifluoromethyl ketyl radical and allyl radical intermediates, which undergo challenging radical-radical cross-coupling. The developed transformations are mild and chemo-selective to give cross-coupled products and deliver a wide range of valuable trifluoromethyl- and allyl-containing tertiary alcohols. Both processes can also be applied for the synthesis of amine variant containing trifluoromethyl and allyl moiety, which is considered as amide bioisostere.

Cobalt-Catalyzed Diastereo- and Enantioselective Reductive Allyl Additions to Aldehydes with Allylic Alcohol Derivatives via Allyl Radical Intermediates.

Catalytic generation of ambiphilic π-allyl-metal complexes and their utility in enantioselective transformations constitutes a powerful approach for introduction of allyl groups to a molecule. Herein an unprecedented cobalt-catalyzed highly site-, diastereo-, and enantioselective protocol for stereoselective formation of nucleophilic allyl-Co(II) complexes followed by addition to aldehydes is presented. The reaction features diastereo- and enantioconvergent conversion of easily accessible allylic alcohol derivatives to diversified enantioenriched homoallylic alcohols with a remarkably broad scope of allyl groups that can be introduced. Mechanistic studies indicated that allyl radical intermediates were involved in this process. These new discoveries establish a new strategy for development of enantioselective transformations through capture of radicals by chiral Co complexes, pushing forward the frontier of Co complexes for enantioselective catalysis.

Sustainable Radical Approaches for Cross Electrophile Coupling to Synthesize Trifluoromethyl- and Allyl- tert-Alcohols

Trifluoromethyl molecules have gained privileged recognition among the medicinal and pharmaceutical chemists. Sustainable photoredox- and electrochemical processes were employed to facilitate the relatively less explored radical cross electrophile coupling to access trifluoromethyl- and allyl-tertiary alcohols. Reactions proceed through trifluoromethyl ketyl radical and allyl radical intermediates which undergo challenging cross radical-radical coupling. The developed transformations are mild and chemo-selective to give cross coupled products and deliver a wide range of valuable trifluoromethyl and allyl containing tertiary alcohols. Both processes can also be applied for the synthesis of amine variant containing trifluoromethyl and allyl moiety which is considered as amide bioisostere.

Regioselective Intramolecular Allene Amidation Enabled by an EDA Complex*.

The addition of radicals to unsaturated precursors is a powerful tool for the synthesis of both carbo- and heterocyclic organic building blocks. The recent advent of mild ways to generate N-centered radicals has reignited interest in exploiting highly regio-, chemo-, and stereoselective transformations that employ these reactive intermediates. While the additions of aminyl, iminyl, and amidyl radicals to alkenes and alkynes have been well-studied, analogous additions to allenes are scarce. Allenes offer several attractive features, including potential for selective amidation at three distinct sites via judicious choice of precursor or radical source, the opportunity for axial-to-point chirality transfer, and productive trapping of vinyl or allyl radical intermediates to diversify functionality in the products. In this article, we report a regioselective addition of amidyl radicals to allenes to furnish an array of valuable N-heterocycle scaffolds.

The regioselective trifluoromethylation of 1,3-bis(vinyl triflates) in the absence of external trifluoromethyl sources

We report the regioselective trifluoromethylation of 1,3-bis(vinyl triflates) via an allyl radical intermediate. In this reaction, the trifluoromethyl radical exclusively attacks the 4-position of the 1,3-diketone derivatives. The observed regioselectivity can be rationalized on the basis of DFT calculations, which suggest that the attack at the 4-position is more favorable than that at the 2-position. We have also developed a one-pot procedure for the regioselective trifluoromethylation of 1,3-diketones.

Copper-Promoted Regioselective Synthesis of Polysubstituted Pyrroles from Aldehydes, Amines, and Nitroalkenes via 1,2-Phenyl/Alkyl Migration.

The facile copper-catalyzed synthesis of polysubstituted pyrroles from aldehydes, amines, and β-nitroalkenes is reported. Remarkably, the use of α-methyl-substituted aldehydes provides efficient access to a series of tetra- and pentasubstituted pyrroles via an overwhelming 1,2-phenyl/alkyl migration. The present methodology is also accessible to non α-substituted aldehydes, yielding the corresponding trisubstituted pyrroles. On the contrary, the use of ketones, in place of aldehydes, does not promote the organic transformation, signifying the necessity of α-substituted aldehydes. The reaction proceeds under mild catalytic conditions with low catalyst loading (0.3-1 mol %), a broad scope, very good functional-group tolerance, and high yields and can be easily scaled up to more than 3 mmol of product, thus highlighting a useful synthetic application of the present catalytic protocol. Based on formal kinetic studies, a possible radical pathway is proposed that involves the formation of an allylic nitrogen radical intermediate, which in turn reacts with the nitroalkene to yield the desired pyrrole framework via a radical 1,2-phenyl or alkyl migration.

Insights into the Activity Change of Spore Photoproduct Lyase Induced by Mutations at a Peripheral Glycine Residue.

UV radiation triggers the formation of 5-thyminyl-5,6-dihydrothymine, i.e., the spore photoproduct (SP), in the genomic DNA of bacterial endospores. These SPs, if not repaired in time, may lead to genome instability and cell death. SP is mainly repaired by spore photoproduct lyase (SPL) during spore outgrowth via an unprecedented protein-harbored radical transfer pathway that is composed of at least a cysteine and two tyrosine residues. This mechanism is consistent with the recently solved SPL structure that shows all three residues are located in proximity and thus able to participate in the radical transfer process during the enzyme catalysis. In contrast, an earlier in vivo mutational study identified a glycine to arginine mutation at the position 168 on the B. subtilis SPL that is >15 Å away from the enzyme active site. This mutation appears to abolish the enzyme activity because endospores carrying this mutant were sensitive to UV light. To understand the molecular basis for this rendered enzyme activity, we constructed two SPL mutations G168A and G168R, examined their repair of dinucleotide SP TpT, and found that both mutants exhibit reduced enzyme activity. Comparing with the wildtype (WT) SPL enzyme, the G168A mutant slows down the SP TpT repair by 3~4-fold while the G168R mutant by ~ 80-fold. Both mutants exhibit a smaller apparent (DV) kinetic isotope effect (KIE) but a bigger competitive (DV/K) KIE than that by the WT SPL. Moreover, the G168R mutant also produces a large portion of the abortive repair product TpT-; the formation of which indicates that cysteine 141 is no longer well positioned as the H-donor to the thymine allylic radical intermediate. All these data imply that the mutation at the remote glycine 168 residue alters the enzyme 3D structure, subsequently reducing the SPL activity by changing the positions of the essential amino acids involved in the radical transfer process.

Photo-dehydrogenation of 4,6-diaryl-2-oxo-1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrimidines

Electron-transfer-induced photo-oxidation of 4,6-diaryl-substituted 2-oxo-1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrimidines (THPMs) in chloroform under argon atmosphere results in the smooth formation of 4,6-diaryl-substituted 2-oxo-1,2-dihydropyrimidines. Sequentially, electron-transfer and proton removal processes in this oxidative reaction result in the occurrence of two different benzylic and allylic radical intermediates, which converted to each other via resonance. Preferably, capto-dative stabilized radical center stimulates the type of product. Based on the proposed oxidation reaction mechanism, the electron transfer from the excited THPMs to chloroform starts this oxidative reaction. The results of the computational study obtained at DFT-B3LYP/6-311++G** level of theory indicate that the first electron is preferably removed from the N1 atom of the heterocyclic ring. A comparison of the sum of the Mulliken spin densities of the radical intermediates supports the argument that the more stable capto-dative stabilized radical is involved in the reaction.

Control of the Chemoselectivity of Metal N-Aryl Nitrene Reactivity: C-H Bond Amination versus Electrocyclization.

A mechanism study to identify the elements that control the chemoselectivity of metal-catalyzed N-atom transfer reactions of styryl azides is presented. Our studies show that the proclivity of the metal N-aryl nitrene to participate in sp3-C-H bond amination or electrocyclization reactions can be controlled by either the substrate or the catalyst. Electrocyclization is favored for mono-β-substituted and sterically noncongested styryl azides, whereas sp3-C-H bond amination through an H-atom abstraction-radical recombination mechanism is preferred when a tertiary allylic reaction center is present. Even when a weakened allylic C-H bond is present, our data suggest that the indole is still formed through an electrocyclization instead of a common allyl radical intermediate. The site selectivity of metal N-aryl nitrenes was found to be controlled by the choice of catalyst: Ir(I)-alkene complexes trigger electrocyclization processes while Fe(III) porphyrin complexes catalyze sp3-C-H bond amination in substrates where Rh2(II) carboxylate catalysts provide both products.

Isomeric product detection in the heterogeneous reaction of hydroxyl radicals with aerosol composed of branched and linear unsaturated organic molecules.

The influence of molecular structure (branched vs linear) on product formation in the heterogeneous oxidation of unsaturated organic aerosol is investigated. Particle phase product isomers formed from the reaction of squalene (C30H50, a branched alkene with six C═C double bonds) and linolenic acid (C18H30O2, a linear carboxylic acid with three C═C double bonds) with OH radicals are identified and quantified using two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The reactions are measured at low and high [O2] (∼1% vs 10% [O2]) to understand the roles of hydroxyalkyl and hydroxyperoxy radical intermediates in product formation. A key reaction step is OH addition to a C═C double bond to form a hydroxyalkyl radical. In addition, allylic alkyl radicals, formed from H atom abstraction reactions by hydroxyalkyl or OH radicals play important roles in the chemistry of product formation. Functionalization products dominate the squalene reaction at ∼1% [O2], with the total abundance of observed functionalization products being approximately equal to the fragmentation products at 10% [O2]. The large abundance of squalene fragmentation products at 10% [O2] is attributed to the formation and dissociation of tertiary hydroxyalkoxy radical intermediates. For linolenic acid aerosol, the formation of functionalization products dominates the reaction at both ∼1% and 10% [O2], suggesting that the formation and dissociation of secondary hydroxyalkoxy radicals are minor reaction channels for linear molecules. The distribution of linolenic acid functionalization products depends upon [O2], indicating that O2 controls the reaction pathways of the secondary hydroxyalkyl radical. For both reactions, alcohols are formed in favor of carbonyl functional groups, suggesting that there are some key differences between heterogeneous reactions involving allylic radical intermediates and those reactions of OH radicals with simple saturated hydrocarbons.

Copper-Catalyzed Oxaziridine-Mediated Oxidation of C–H Bonds

The highly regio- and chemoselective oxidation of activated C-H bonds has been observed via copper-catalyzed reactions of oxaziridines. The oxidation proceeded with a variety of substrates, primarily comprising allylic and benzylic examples, as well as one example of an otherwise unactivated tertiary C-H bond. The mechanism of the reaction is proposed to involve single-electron transfer to the oxaziridines to generate a copper-bound radical anion, followed by hydrogen atom abstraction and collapse to products, with regeneration of the catalyst by a final single-electron transfer event. The involvement of allylic radical intermediates was supported by a radical-trapping experiment with TEMPO.

Mechanistic studies of the formation of cyclopropane-bearing systems through photoconversion of tropolone Diels–Alder adducts

Irradiation of alkyltropolone Diels–Alder adducts bearing β,γ-unsaturated ketone chromophores leads to fused polycyclic systems containing cyclopropane moieties in good yields. A detailed mechanistic study, which included the use of deuterium labeling in combination with HRMS and NMR experiments, revealed that the process is highly stereoselective, proceeds through the formation of allyl radical and ketene intermediates, and involves participation of the solvent.

Light-induced Free Radical Oxidation of 2-Oxo-1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrimidines

A variety of 4-substituted 5-acetyl- and 5-carboethoxy-2-oxo-1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrimidines were oxidized under UV irradiation in the presence or absence of benzoyl peroxide. The nature of the substituents on the 4- and 5-positions of the heterocyclic ring affects the rate of photo-oxidation, and irradiation of these compounds in the presence of benzoyl peroxide decreases the time of reaction drastically. Removal of 4-H by a benzoyloxy radical under formation of a trihydropyrimidinoyl radical intermediate occurs in the rate-determining step. The stability of this benzylic and allylic radical intermediate is affected by the nature and the position of the additional substituent on the phenyl group located at C-4.

ChemInform Abstract: Preparation of Substituted Dihydrofluorenones by Photoisomerization of Benzotropolone Derivatives.

Abstract The photoisomerization of the Diels–Alder adduct formed between tetramethylpurpurogallin and maleic anhydride is described. The process is highly stereoselective, involves the β,γ-unsaturated ketone chromophore present in the adduct, proceeds through the formation of allyl and aroyl radical intermediates, and leads to a novel substituted dihydrofluorenone in good yields.

Chemical dynamics of the CH(X2Π) + C2H4(X1A1g), CH(X2Π) + C2D4(X1A1g), and CD(X2Π) + C2H4(X1A1g) reactions studied under single collision conditions

The crossed beam reactions of the methylidyne radical with ethylene (CH(X(2)Π) + C(2)H(4)(X(1)A(1g))), methylidyne with D4-ethylene (CH(X(2)Π) + C(2)D(4)(X(1)A(1g))), and D1-methylidyne with ethylene (CD(X(2)Π) + C(2)H(4)(X(1)A(1g))) were conducted at nominal collision energies of 17-18 kJ mol(-1) to untangle the chemical dynamics involved in the formation of distinct C(3)H(4) isomers methylacetylene (CH(3)CCH), allene (H(2)CCCH(2)), and cyclopropene (c-C(3)H(4)) via C(3)H(5) intermediates. By tracing the atomic hydrogen and deuterium loss pathways, our experimental data suggest indirect scattering dynamics and an initial addition of the (D1)-methylidyne radical to the carbon-carbon double bond of the (D4)-ethylene reactant forming a cyclopropyl radical intermediate (c-C(3)H(5)/c-C(3)D(4)H/c-C(3)H(4)D). The latter was found to ring-open to the allyl radical (H(2)CCHCH(2)/D(2)CCHCD(2)/H(2)CCDCH(2)). This intermediate was found to be long lived with life times of at least five times its rotational period and decomposed via atomic hydrogen/deuterium loss from the central carbon atom (C2) to form allene via a rather loose exit transition state in an overall strongly exoergic reaction. Based on the experiments with partially deuterated reactants, no compelling evidence could be provided to support the formation of the cyclopropene and methylacetylene isomers under single collision conditions. Likewise, hydrogen/deuterium shifts in the allyl radical intermediates or an initial insertion of the (D1)-methylidyne radical into the carbon-hydrogen/deuterium bond of the (D4)-ethylene reactant were found to be-if at all-of minor importance. Our experiments propose that in hydrocarbon-rich atmospheres of planets and their moons such as Saturn's satellite Titan, the reaction of methylidyne radicals should lead predominantly to the hitherto elusive allene molecule in these reducing environments.

Preparation of Substituted Dihydrofluorenones by Photoisomerization of Benzotropolone Derivatives

The photoisomerization of the Diels–Alder adduct formed between tetramethylpurpurogallin and maleic anhydride is described. The process is highly stereoselective, involves the β,γ-unsaturated ketone chromophore present in the adduct, proceeds through the formation of allyl and aroyl radical intermediates, and leads to a novel substituted dihydrofluorenone in good yields.

Primary photodissociation pathways of epichlorohydrin and analysis of the C–C bond fission channels from an O(P3)+allyl radical intermediate

This study initially characterizes the primary photodissociation processes of epichlorohydrin, c-(H(2)COCH)CH(2)Cl. The three dominant photoproduct channels analyzed are c-(H(2)COCH)CH(2)+Cl, c-(H(2)COCH)+CH(2)Cl, and C(3)H(4)O+HCl. In the second channel, the c-(H(2)COCH) photofission product is a higher energy intermediate on C(2)H(3)O global potential energy surface and has a small isomerization barrier to vinoxy. The resulting highly vibrationally excited vinoxy radicals likely dissociate to give the observed signal at the mass corresponding to ketene, H(2)CCO. The final primary photodissociation pathway HCl+C(3)H(4)O evidences a recoil kinetic energy distribution similar to that of four-center HCl elimination in chlorinated alkenes, so is assigned to production of c-(H(2)COC)=CH(2); the epoxide product is formed with enough vibrational energy to isomerize to acrolein and dissociate. The paper then analyzes the dynamics of the C(3)H(5)O radical produced from C-Cl bond photofission. When the epoxide radical photoproduct undergoes facile ring opening, it is the radical intermediate formed in the O((3)P)+allyl bimolecular reaction when the O atom adds to an end C atom. We focus on the HCO+C(2)H(4) and H(2)CO+C(2)H(3) product channels from this radical intermediate in this report. Analysis of the velocity distribution of the momentum-matched signals from the HCO+C(2)H(4) products at m/e=29 and 28 shows that the dissociation of the radical intermediate imparts a high relative kinetic energy, peaking near 20 kcal/mol, between the products. Similarly, the energy imparted to relative kinetic energy in the H(2)CO+C(2)H(3) product channel of the O((3)P)+allyl radical intermediate also peaks at high-recoil kinetic energies, near 18 kcal/mol. The strongly forward-backward peaked angular distributions and the high kinetic energy release result from tangential recoil during the dissociation of highly rotationally excited nascent radicals formed photolytically in this experiment. The data also reveal substantial branching to an HCCH+H(3)CO product channel. We present a detailed statistical prediction for the dissociation of the radical intermediate on the C(3)H(5)O potential energy surface calculated with coupled cluster theory, accounting for the rotational and vibrational energy imparted to the radical intermediate and the resulting competition between the H+acrolein, HCO+C(2)H(4), and H(2)CO+C(2)H(3) product channels. We compare the results of the theoretical prediction with our measured branching ratios. We also report photoionization efficiency (PIE) curves extending from 9.25 to 12.75 eV for the signal from the HCO+C(2)H(4) and H(2)CO+C(2)H(3) product channels. Using the C(2)H(4) bandwidth-averaged absolute photoionization cross section at 11.27 eV and our measured relative photoion signals of C(2)H(4) and HCO yields a value of 11.6+1/-3 Mb for the photoionization cross section of HCO at 11.27 eV. This determination puts the PIE curve of HCO measured here on an absolute scale, allowing us to report the absolute photoionization efficiency of HCO over the entire range of photoionization energies.

ChemInform Abstract: Macrocyclizations Using Allylic Radical Intermediates. A New Synthetic Approach to Natural 14-Membered Cembranoids.

ChemInform Abstract: Macrocyclizations Using Allylic Radical Intermediates. A New Synthetic Approach to Natural 14-Membered Cembranoids.

Probing the reaction mechanism of IspH protein by x-ray structure analysis

Isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) represent the two central intermediates in the biosynthesis of isoprenoids. The recently discovered deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate pathway generates a mixture of IPP and DMAPP in its final step by reductive dehydroxylation of 1-hydroxy-2-methyl-2-butenyl 4-diphosphate. This conversion is catalyzed by IspH protein comprising a central iron-sulfur cluster as electron transfer cofactor in the active site. The five crystal structures of IspH in complex with substrate, converted substrate, products and PP i reported in this article provide unique insights into the mechanism of this enzyme. While IspH protein crystallizes with substrate bound to a [4Fe-4S] cluster, crystals of IspH in complex with IPP, DMAPP or inorganic pyrophosphate feature [3Fe-4S] clusters. The IspH:substrate complex reveals a hairpin conformation of the ligand with the C(1) hydroxyl group coordinated to the unique site in a [4Fe-4S] cluster of aconitase type. The resulting alkoxide complex is coupled to a hydrogen-bonding network, which serves as proton reservoir via a Thr167 proton relay. Prolonged x-ray irradiation leads to cleavage of the C(1)-O bond (initiated by reducing photo electrons). The data suggest a reaction mechanism involving a combination of Lewis -acid activation and proton coupled electron transfer. The resulting allyl radical intermediate can acquire a second electron via the iron-sulfur cluster. The reaction may be terminated by the transfer of a proton from the β-phosphate of the substrate to C(1) (affording DMAPP) or C(3) (affording IPP).