Alkaline Activator Research Articles

Alkaline activation via in-situ caustification of one-part binders of composite precursors of waste glass and limestone

Mixtures of powders of waste glass (WG), limestone (LS), Na2CO3 and CaO were used to formulate novel one-part in situ alkali-activated cement (WG-AAC). The in-situ interaction Na2CO3-CaO-H2O promoted the formation of CaCO3 and NaOH, which promoted the WG and LS dissolution and influenced the micro- and molecular features of the resulting cementitious products. Pastes and mortars developed 1-year strengths of up to 29 MPa and were stable underwater. Characterization by XRD, SEM, EDS, and 29Si-NMR indicated that a Na2CO3:CaO ratio close to 1:1 resulted in polymerized C-S-H, CaCO3, silica gel, and Ca-modified silica gel, which were intimately intermixed and possibly crosslinked through Q3 bonds. Such phases interacted synergistically improving the underwater stability of the WG-AAC, indicating that in-situ caustification is a suitable and practical alkaline activation for SiO2-rich precursors.

Tensile strength and durability performances-based evaluation of 3D-printed and mold-cast fibrous geopolymer composites produced at various alkaline activator combinations

This study aimed to investigate the effects of the sodium silicate-to-sodium hydroxide ratio, SH molarity, and carbon fiber volume fraction on the tensile strength and durability properties of mold-cast and 3D-printed geopolymer composites, including flexural and splitting tensile strengths, ultrasonic pulse velocity, water absorption, sorptivity index, and chloride penetration properties. For that purpose, the ground-granulated blast furnace slag and fly ash were employed as alumino-silicate-rich raw material. In order to activate the alumino-silicate-rich raw material, two sodium silicate/sodium hydroxide ratios of 1 and 2 and three sodium hydroxide molarities of 8M, 10M, and 12M were designated. Furthermore, carbon fiber was incorporated into the geopolymer composites at three volume fractions: 0%, 0.3%, and 0.6%. In total, 18 nonfibrous and fibrous geopolymer composites were manufactured in two different ways: mold-cast and 3D-printed. The findings demonstrated that the strength and durability characteristics of 3D-printed specimens were inferior to those of mold-cast specimens, attributed to the presence of weak interfacial bonds between layers. It has been observed that the incorporation of carbon fiber has the effect of improving tensile strength performance. Nevertheless, the addition of carbon fiber led to a slight decrease in UPV values, and an increase in water absorption and sorptivity index values. Also, it adversely influenced the chloride penetration of geopolymer composites. The findings of the study also indicated that increasing the sodium hydroxide molarity had a positive impact on the strength and durability properties of the composites. Nevertheless, it was observed that increasing the sodium silicate-to-sodium hydroxide ratio led to a decrease in both tensile strength and durability performances. Additionally, the microstructure of the geopolymer composites was analyzed using scanning electron microscope (SEM) images.

Study on Impact Resistance of Alkali-Activated Slag Cementitious Material with Steel Fiber

Alkali-activated slag cementitious materials (AASCMs) use alkaline activators to activate blast furnace slag and waste slag to replace traditional Portland cement, which can reduce CO2 emissions. An impact resistance test and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) microscopic performance analysis of alkali-activated slag cementitious material specimens with four different steel-fiber contents are performed. The effects of steel-fiber volume content and strain rate on the dynamic elastic modulus Ed, dynamic compressive strength σd, dynamic peak compressive strain εc, and energy absorption of the AASCM-SS are studied. The results indicate that the dynamic elastic modulus Ed, dynamic compressive strength σd, and energy absorption of the AASCM-SS increase with the increase of strain rate, and the dynamic peak compressive strain εc decreases with the increase of strain rate. The dynamic elastic modulus Ed, dynamic compressive strength σd, and dynamic peak compressive strain εc of the SS-AASCM increase first and then decrease with the increase of steel-fiber content. When the steel-fiber content is 0.5%, the σd and εc of the AASCM-SS are the highest, increased by 9.9% and 19.3%. The energy absorption of AASCM-SS increases with the increase of steel-fiber content. A dynamic constitutive model of the FR-AASCM considering the influence of damage, strain rate, and steel-fiber volume fraction is established. The proposed constitutive model is in acceptable agreement with the experimental AASCM-SS dynamic stress–strain curve, and the correlation coefficient is 0.91.

Assessing the Influence of Calcium-Based Alkaline Activators and Metakaolin on the Compressive Strength Development of Geopolymer Concrete for Different Mix Design Parameters

Assessing the Influence of Calcium-Based Alkaline Activators and Metakaolin on the Compressive Strength Development of Geopolymer Concrete for Different Mix Design Parameters

Synthesis and Characterization of an Alkali-Activated Binder from Blast Furnace Slag and Marble Waste

This study reports an alkali-activated binder including blast furnace slag (BFS) together with marble waste (MW). Cement is an industrial product that emits a significant amount of CO2 during its production and incurs high energy costs. MW is generated during the extraction, cutting, and processing of marble in production facilities, where dust mixes with water to form a settling sludge. This sludge is an environmentally harmful waste that must be disposed of in accordance with legal regulations. In this study, a substantial amount of MW, a by-product with considerable environmental and economic impacts worldwide, was utilized in the production of a binder through the alkaline activation of BFS. In doing this, different experimental parameters were tested to obtain the best binder samples according to workability and mechanical properties. Then, some experiments such as drying shrinkage determination, strength testing, and microstructure analyses were fulfilled through samples with the best values. The findings supported the improvement of the rapid-setting property of BFS by means of the addition of MW. MW reduced the time-dependent drying shrinkage values of BFS by 55%, especially in slag alkaline activation systems with a low or moderate alkali activator content. The substitution of MW (≤50%) in BFS increased flexural and compressive strengths (4.5 and 61.7 MPa), while a reference sample contained BFS only. Although the use of MW did not create a new phase, it contributed to a C-S-H bonding structure during the alkali activation of BFS in a microstructure analysis.

Concretes meeting the requirements of sustainable construction

The article concerns the production of lightweight geopolymer concretes based on raw materials from alkali-activated waste, which is consistent with the doctrine of sustainable construction. Fly ash, which is the main component of these geopolymer composites, constitutes energy waste and causes lower emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants than traditional cement. The article presents the optimisation of the geopolymer concrete recipe with different dosages of fly ash (200, 300, 400, 500, 600 and 700 kg/m3) and two recipes, the first of which is based on the use of fly ash aggregate, the largest fraction of which was subjected to surface impregnation, and the second one is based on the use of aggregate without any impregnation. Both recipes use an alkaline solution for alkaline activation with a concentration of 6 mol/dm3. Compressive strength tests and apparent density were carried out on the samples. The adequacy of the use of surface impregnation has been demonstrated in the case of low fly ash content (<500 kg/m3), and the optimal recipe based on fly ash in the amount of 600 kg/m3 was indicated.

Silicomanganese fume-based alkali-activated mortar: experimental, statistical, and environmental impact studies.

This paper evaluates the flowability and strength properties of alkali-activated mortar produced using silicomanganese fume (SiMnF) as the sole binder, combined with alkaline activators and sand, cured at room temperature (23 ± 1 °C). A total of 18 mixes were prepared by varying binder content (370, 470, and 570 kg/m3), alkaline activator content (33, 43, and 53% of binder by weight), and NaOH concentration (8 M and 12 M). The SiMnF-based alkali-activated pastes were characterized using SEM, XRD, and FTIR techniques to study morphology, mineral composition, and functional groups, respectively. Statistical modeling, including analysis of variance (ANOVA) and response surface method (RSM), was performed to optimize the mixes, and a life cycle assessment was conducted to evaluate the environmental impact of the developed SiMnF-based alkali-activated mortars (SiMnF-AAM). The experimental results showed that an optimal mix design with 470kg/m3 SiMnF, 43% alkaline activator content, and NaOH concentrations of 8M and 12M achieved the best balance of flow and strength. XRD and FTIR analyses confirmed that Nchwaningite was the primary reaction product, with secondary phases including magnetite, manganese ferrite, and potassium feldspar, influenced by alkali concentration. The SiMnF-based mixtures had a significantly lower CO₂ footprint (0.08kg CO₂/kg) compared to the cement-based mix, with alkali activators being the primary contributors to emissions. The developed SiMnF-AAM mixes, cured at room temperature, exhibited improved workability, mechanical properties, and reduced environmental impact, making them adaptive to real-life applications.

Design of a novel ternary blended Self-Compacting Ultra-high-performance Geopolymer Concrete

In this research study, the Taguchi orthogonal array (TOA) optimisation method was used to design the optimum mixture proportions of ternary blended Self-Compacting Ultra-High-Performance Geopolymer Concrete (SCUHPGC). The SCUHPGC mixtures, cured at ambient conditions, included Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS), Fly Ash (FA), and Silica Fume (SF) as aluminosilicate sources and sodium hydroxide solution and sodium silicate solution as alkaline activators. The effects of six factors at three levels on the compressive strength of SCUHPGC were investigated. The considered factors were the binder content, the ratio of fly ash to ground granulated blast furnace slag (FA/GGBFS), the ratio of silica fume to binder content (SF/Binder content), the ratio of alkaline activator to binder content (AAL/Binder content), the ratio of sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide (SS/SH), and the concentration of sodium hydroxide solution. Twenty-seven SCUHPGC mixtures were evaluated. The slump flow diameter of the optimum SCHUPGC was 740 mm, which satisfies the requirements of self-compacting concrete. The maximum 28-day compressive strength of 132.7 MPa was achieved by the optimum SCUHPGC mixture, which contained a binder content of 1050 kg/m3, a FA/GGBFS ratio of 0.3, an SF/Binder content ratio of 0.05, an AAL/Binder content ratio of 0.4, a SS/SH ratio of 4.0, and an SH concentration of 12 M. The 28-day flexural strength and tensile strength of the optimum SCUHPGC mixture were 9.6 MPa and 4.9 MPa, respectively.

Hydration process and fluoride solidification mechanism of multi-source solid waste-based phosphogypsum cemented paste backfill under CaO modification

The large-scale, environmentally friendly utilization of phosphogypsum (PG) remains a global challenge. PG cemented paste backfill (PCPB) is a promising method to manage PG, but using ordinary Portland cement as the binder has drawbacks such as high cost, low mechanical strength, and high fluoride leaching risk. This paper presents a multi-source solid waste-based PCPB (MPCPB) material that enhances mechanical properties and reduces fluoride leaching risks. In MPCPB, industrial waste residues like steel slag (SS) and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS) are used as precursors (SS: GBFS = 1:2). Additionally, 4–8 wt% CaO (relative to the dry weight of PG) is used as a neutralizing modifier and alkaline activator. The results indicate that an optimal amount of CaO can neutralize the residual acidity of PG, provide sufficient Ca(OH)2 for MPCPB hydration, and react with PG to produce significant amounts of AFt. Furthermore, CaO promotes the geopolymerization reaction between SS and GBFS, generating more calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and calcium aluminate silicate hydrate (C-A-S-H) gels. Fluoride stabilization in MPCPB results from synergistic effects involving hydration reactions, complexation, ionic mobility, rearrangement, and physical adsorption. Notably, CaO enhances the conversion of free fluoride ions into stable compounds like fluorapatite, fluorite (CaF2), [AlF6]3-, and [FeF6]3- complexes. This approach offers a cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and efficient solution to the PG stockpiling challenge.

Study on the rheological properties and compressive strength mechanism of geopolymer cementitious materials for solid waste

The large-scale storage of industrial solid waste can cause serious environmental pollution issues. Utilizing industrial solid waste to produce green cementitious materials is an effective alternative to cement. This study utilizes steel slag (SS) and calcium carbide residue (CCR) as alkaline activators, combining them with blast furnace slag (BFS) and fly ash (FA) to create SCBF cementitious materials. Investigate the flowability, setting time, rheological properties, compressive strength, pore structure, and microscopic morphology of SCBF cementitious materials under different conditions and conduct molecular dynamics simulations. The research findings indicate that with an increase in BFS content, the flow performance of SCBF decreases, setting time shortens, plastic viscosity and yield stress gradually increase, UCS increases, and the proportion of harmful pores inside the samples decreases. When SS:CCR:BFS:FA is at a ratio of 25:25:30:20, with an increase in curing temperature, the UCS of samples shows a trend of first increasing and then decreasing. The proportion of harmful pores follows a pattern of initial decrease followed by an increase. When the curing temperature is 30 °C, the proportion of harmful pores is 0.31 %, reaching a local minimum, and the UCS strength reaches 13.83 MPa. In the raw materials, SiO2 and Al2O3 aggregate with Ca2+ in an alkaline environment to form C-(A)-S-H three-dimensional network gel. The potential energy, kinetic energy, non-bonding energy, and total energy of Tobermorite 14 Å crystals gradually increase with higher curing temperatures, with the most intense molecular motion occurring at 60 °C. The research findings are beneficial for promoting the use of industrial solid waste to manufacture green cementitious materials as substitutes for cement-based materials. They also provide a theoretical basis for the industrial application of high-temperature-cured solid waste cementitious materials.

Applying Alkali Activator and Hydrophobic Agents in Clay-Based Mortars for Enhanced Properties

Clay-based mortars are susceptible to water intake and exhibit low mechanical strength, presenting challenges in their application within the construction sector. This research addresses these vulnerabilities by investigating the combination of alkali activators with waterproofing agents, specifically a nano-clay and an acrylic emulsion, to enhance the properties of clay mortars. Alkali-activated materials are known for their superior mechanical properties and sustainable potential, especially when derived from low-cost by-products. Recent studies have focused on alkali activation using clays and soils as precursors to improve their physical and mechanical properties while increasing durability. However, the high absorbency of these mortars remains a concern, as it can lead to matrix degradation. Therefore, to address these problems, this research studied the combination of a highly alkaline activator (potassium metasilicate) with hydrophobic agents, such as a nano-clay and an acrylic emulsion, using two different clayey soils. The results indicated that potassium metasilicate (PO) enhanced the mechanical properties and stability for both aluminosilicate systems, while nano-clay (PONC) significantly reduced the capillary absorption through time, especially in A2 systems. The addition of acrylic emulsion (POD) proved highly effective in both systems, significantly improving durability. By integrating these agents, the mortar systems were protected against water intake, while durable construction materials were formed.

Experimental study on the utilization of Fly ash solid waste in tunnel shotcrete materials

AbstractFly ash has emerged as a prominent solid waste in China, leading to various environmental concerns and posing a threat to the health of living organisms, including humans. To enhance the industrial applicability of this waste material, a novel approach has been proposed wherein sand is replaced with fly ash as the primary raw material for wall grouting of coal mine roadways. To address the issue of low compressive strength and to improve the properties of fly ash shotcrete materials, a method employing an alkali activator to stimulate the chemical activity of fly ash has been put forward. The long‐term effectiveness of the shotcrete material has been evaluated using compressive strength testing and scanning electron microscopy testing methods. The impact of replacing sand with fly ash on the compressive strength of shotcrete and the activation effect of sodium sulfate (Na2SO4), NaOH, and Na2SiO3 on fly ash shotcrete have been studied. The results indicate that the compressive strength of fly ash shotcrete shows optimal improvement when the content of Na2SO4 is 3%. The ideal ratio of cement to fly ash is 1:3. Therefore, incorporating an appropriate amount of alkaline activator could effectively address the compressive strength issues of fly ash shotcrete materials.

Influence of alkaline activators on mechanical properties of environmentally friendly geopolymer concrete under different curing regimes.

Previous studies highlighted the significance of tailoring alkaline activators (AA) to specific fly ash (FA) sources for optimal properties of geopolymer concrete (GPC). This study examines the influence of various AA's properties on mechanical properties and microstructures of local low-calcium FA-based GPC under varying curing conditions. A comprehensive investigation consists of several factors such as NaOH molarities (10M, 12M, 14M, 16M), ratios (1.5, 2.0, 2.5) and ratios (0.5, 0.6). The results reveal a complex relationship, demonstrating that NaOH molarity positively influences compressive strength up to a threshold of 14M, beyond which an adverse effect was observed while, the flexural strength was increased up to 16M. Moreover, the study highlights the complex relationship between ratios and mechanical strengths. Notably, these properties exhibited an increase as the ratio rose up to 2.0, but a subsequent decrease was observed when the ratio reached 2.5. Moreover, proposed regression equations predict the compressive and flexural strengths of both ambient-cured GPC and heat-cured GPC with marginal statistical errors. The optimal GPC mix exhibited 49% lower embodied emissions than the corresponding OPC concrete. GPC has higher cost, but it exhibited lower cost-to-strength ratio compared to OPC concrete.

Research on the Physical Properties of an Eco-Friendly Layered Geopolymer Composite

Building envelopes with natural fibers are the future of sustainable construction, combining ecology and energy efficiency. The geopolymer building envelope was reinforced with innovative composite bars and two types of natural insulation (coconut mats and flax/hemp non-woven fabrics) were used as the core material. A 10 mol sodium hydroxide solution with an aqueous sodium silicate solution was used for the alkaline activation of the geopolymers. The purpose of this study was to confirm the feasibility of producing geopolymer composites with insulating layers made of renewable materials, which would have compressive strengths like those of C25/30-grade concrete and thermal conductivity coefficients like those of lightweight concrete. This publication presents the results of physicochemical tests on the base materials (oxide (XRF) and mineral phase (XRD) analysis as well as morphology and EDS) and studies the physical (density measurements), mechanical (flexural and compressive strength tests) and insulating properties (thermal conductivity measurements) of the finished sandwich partitions. The composites achieved a flexural strength of 7 MPa, a compressive strength of up to 30 MPa and a decrease in the thermal conductivity coefficient of about 60%. The research demonstrates contribution to sustainable construction by developing geopolymer composites, offering both structural integrity and superior thermal insulation. This innovation not only reduces reliance on traditional, carbon-intensive materials but also promotes the use of eco-friendly resources, significantly lowering the carbon footprint of construction. The integration of natural fibers into geopolymer matrices addresses key environmental concerns, advancing a rapidly growing field that aligns with global efforts toward energy efficiency, waste reduction, and circular economy principles in building design.

Pre-treated municipal solid waste bottom ash as alkali-activated mortar precursor

Pre-treated incinerator bottom ash was used as a precursor of alkali-activated mortars. Control mortars were produced using coal fly ash. Different combinations of alkaline activator were tested (sodium oxide/binder ratio (4%, 6%, 8%, 10% and 15%) and silicon dioxide/sodium oxide ratio (0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0)) and the influence of these on the mortar's mechanical performance was evaluated. The mortars were tested in both fresh (for density and workability) and hardened states (for dry density, compressive and flexural strengths and modulus of elasticity) after 7, 28, 91 and 182 days. The first stage of work was precursor pre-treatment in a sodium hydroxide solution to prevent the expansion of fresh specimens due to the reaction of aluminium with the alkaline activator. The pre-treatment was effective in preventing excessive hydrogen gas generation during setting, leading to dimensional stability and improved strength. Different optimum sodium oxide contents were observed after 28 days (i.e. 15% for fly ash specimens and 8% for bottom ash specimens). The results of a simplified life-cycle assessment showed that such mixes exhibited lower overall carbon dioxide emissions when compared with cement-based counterparts. However, this trend was reversed with increasing contents of sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate.

Flame-Resistant Inorganic Films by Self-Assembly of Clay Nanotubes and their Conversion to Geopolymer for CO2 Capture.

Self-assembling of very long natural clay nanotubes represents a powerful strategy to fabricate thermo-stable inorganic thin films suitable for environmental applications. In this work, self-standing films with variable thicknesses (from 60 to 300µm) are prepared by the entanglement of 20-30µm length Patch halloysite clay nanotubes (PT_Hal), which interconnect into fibrosus structures. The thickness of the films is crucial to confer specific properties like transparency, mechanical resistance, and water uptake. Despite its completely inorganic composition, the thickest nanoclay film possesses elasticity comparable with polymeric materials as evidenced by its Young's modulus (ca. 1710MPa). All PT_Hal-based films are fire resistant and stable under high temperature conditions preventing flame propagation. After their direct flame exposure, produced films do not show neither deterioration effects nor macroscopic alterations. PT_Hal films are employed as precursors for the development of functional materials by alkaline activation and thermal treatment, which generate highly porous geopolymers or ceramics with a compact morphology. Due to its high porosity, geopolymer can be promising for CO2 capture. As compared to the corresponding inorganic film, the CO2 adsorption efficiency is doubled for the halloysite geopolymeric materials highlighting their potential use as a sorbent.

Trio/hybrid fiber effect on the geopolymer reinforced concrete for flexural and shear behavior

AbstractGeopolymer concrete (GC) is an innovative and sustainable type of composite resulting from the chemical reaction between waste materials containing and alkaline activators. The researchers have been focused to reduction of the greenhouse‐gas release, especially during the production of cement. Although numerous studies have been conducted on alkali‐activated cement or GC at the material level, there is limited research in the literature on the structural performance of reinforced GC members. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of fiber combination on the shear and flexural performance of RC beams with maximum and minimum reinforcement ratio. To investigate the shear and flexural behavior of GC beam, four‐point and three‐point tests were performed on 12 GC with hybrid fibers, 4 GC with trio fibers, and 2 GC fiber‐free as references beams. The test parameters were the combination of fibers (steel, glass, carbon, and basalt), the longitudinal reinforcement ratio, and loading type. The key test results include the load‐deflection behavior, characteristics of the cracks, the effect of fiber type on the shear and flexural performance, ductility and stiffness properties, microstructure, the strain in the concrete, and the bars and code predictions. The test results showed that as expected, reducing the longitudinal reinforcement ratio decreased the strength, but the decrease in strength was tolerated by using different types of fibers. The use of trio fibers in beams under bending increased the strength capacity, considerably. Finally, the capacity prediction performance of current codes, that is, GB50010, EuroCode‐2, TS500, and ACI318, were also examined, and the calculations resulted that the current code equations had a percentage error of approximately 25% and 82% on average for flexural and shear, respectively, although EuroCode‐2 equations performed slightly better.

Low-carbon high-strength engineered geopolymer composites (HS-EGC) with full-volume fly ash precursor: Role of silica modulus

In this study, the influence of the silica modulus of alkaline activators on the overall performances of pure fly ash (FA)-based High-Strength Engineered/Strain-Hardening Geopolymer Composites (HS-EGC/SHGC) was comprehensively studied. The developed HS-EGC successfully presented simultaneous high compressive strength (over 90 MPa) and high tensile ductility (over 6.0 %) for the first time. Tensile strain-hardening and over-saturated cracking phenomena were observed for all the HS-EGC mixes. It was found that the increase of the silica modulus from 1.0 to 2.0 reduced the tensile strength and strain energy density of HS-EGC, but the most distinguished overall mechanical index was achieved in the mix with the silica modulus of 1.5. Additionally, the underlying mechanism behind the mechanical performances was explored by Back Scattering Electron and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (BSE-EDS) tests. According to the data comparison from literature review, the good sustainability and market potential of the developed material were successfully demonstrated, and the developed HS-EGC pushed the performance envelope of pure FA-based EGC materials. The findings could help promote the future development and practical applications of this strain-hardening geopolymer material with both good sustainability and high mechanical performances.

The Potential of Seawater in Geopolymer Mixtures – Effect of Alkaline Activator, Seawater, and Steam Curing on the Strength of Geopolymer Paste

The Potential of Seawater in Geopolymer Mixtures – Effect of Alkaline Activator, Seawater, and Steam Curing on the Strength of Geopolymer Paste

In situ, Self-Healing and Self-Glazing of Geopolymers

Geopolymers are the result of the reaction of alkaline activators with reactive aluminosilicates. By dissolving these aluminosilicates and undergoing processes of polycondensation and geopolymerization, they form robust structures with distinct properties compared to other ceramics. These non-crystalline materials exhibit notable resistance to corrosion, heat, and environmental conditions, such as changes in pressure and temperature. Consequently, geopolymers, e.g., of stoichiometric composition (M2O•Al2O3•4SiO2•11H2O (or 13H2O)), find a place between cement and ceramics regarding mechanical properties. Considering the formulation of geopolymer blends, this study demonstrates that these materials have self-healing and self-glazing properties under high-temperature conditions. Through systematic experimentation and considering the specific properties of sodium-based (Na-GP) and potassium-based (K-GP) geopolymers, a combination of sodium and potassium waterglass compounds with different weight percentages were used to achieve geopolymer materials with optimum self-healing and self-glazing properties. Moreover, these samples were subjected to heat treatment under various time and temperature conditions to optimize their properties in terms of crystallization, and the best results were reported from among these variables. Based on the findings, the specific combination consisting of 75 wt.% sodium waterglass and 25 wt.% potassium waterglass were the best mixtures. This mixture was heated at a rate of 5°C per minute to a temperature of 1000°C and held isothermally for 6 hours before being cooled at the same rate. As a result, an amorphous geopolymer turned into a ceramic with irreversible, self-healing, and self-glazing capabilities.