Albanian Families Research Articles

Challenges and Opportunities in the Livestock Industry for higher productivity and sustainability: The case of Albania

The livestock sector plays an important role in the economic development of the country. This sector is a source of income and employment for many Albanian families who live mainly in rural areas. A large part of the population in our country deals with livestock. But regardless of all the contributions that livestock makes to the food chain, financial sustainability, and the entire economy, this sector faces many challenges. Based on the literature review, a questionnaire to identify these challenges was constructed. The questionnaire contains questions with answers on the Likert scale, is addressed to livestock farmers in Albania, and serves to identify the main challenges affecting the livestock sector. The questionnaire divided the challenges of the livestock sector into five parts, including animal welfare and livestock production, sustainable practices and environmental sustainability, market challenges, information, communication technologies and livestock marketing challenges, and challenges of innovations in livestock production. Animal welfare affects the productivity of the livestock sector. The risk of the spread of epidemic diseases and the high costs of vaccination and medications are a concern for Albanian farmers, who often have difficulties ensuring sustainable profits. In recent years, the livestock sector has faced high input costs. Lack of infrastructure also hinders the efficiency of the livestock sector. The need for sustainable practices and environmental sustainability demands more attention. While farmers want to adopt sustainable livestock methods, they face difficulties in implementing them. Unpredictable livestock prices complicate financial planning for farmers. In addition, small farms face challenges competing with larger ones. Farmers face difficulties in becoming part of new markets due to a lack of effective marketing channels. The lack of a labor force is the biggest challenge that the livestock sector in Albania is facing. Innovation often serves to solve many problems in the livestock sector. Farmers use new technologies to increase livestock productivity. But the use of new technologies requires knowledge, which Albanian farmers often don’t have. They do not have the proper education to understand and apply these technologies. In conclusion, this paper aims to highlight the various problems faced by the livestock sector. Overcoming these problems by dealing directly with them can increase the productivity of the livestock sector, ensuring a better future for the industry.

The integration of Albanian women in the Balkan and European labor market

Abstract The integration of Albania in the EU is one of the greatest aspirations that Albanian citizens have in their future. The effort to adapt the workforce of Albanian citizens to the European market has been positive. This can be seen in the number of Albanian women who have moved and continue to move in the EU countries. The emancipation of women has led to an increase in the level of education and an increase in the professional level. The integration of women as equal power in Albanian families makes it possible for the spirit of gender discrimination to decrease significantly. The presented study will be based on the inclusion of the Albanian woman in the European market as well as her emancipation in professional development. The review of information includes the analysis of relevant and available data and sources (reports, reports from previous surveys, research, etc.) regarding the needs of the labor market. In this paper we will analyze the relationship between gender, education level, age and salary level. Each of these factors in the economy has defined roles, based on the primary indicators and on the distinguishing indicators of everyone’s knowledge in this scheme, but with a common goal to serve the stability and growth of the Albanian economy. The registered unemployment rate for 2011 was 13.3% of which women represent 14.3% and men, 12.4%. The highest unemployment rate corresponds to the 15-29 age group and it is estimated that there is at least 50% employment in the informal economy. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the women’s labor market in Albania based on the statistical data of INSTAT with a focus also in the EU and the Western Balkan market by using the linear regression method.

Anton Çetta i uticaj pomirenja krvi na društvo Kosova, 1990. godine

The idea for movement of blood feud reconciliation was one of the most important humanitarian missions in the Albanian society in Kosovo during the 1990s. The act of forgiveness of blood feud was a humane act that reconciled families and had a positive impact on Albanian society in Kosovo. During 1990, Albanians in Kosovo started to face a dire situation in all aspects. The year 1990 marks many momentous events in the history of Kosovo, and many of these events were difficult ones since most Albanians left their jobs by force, and as a result, the economic situation of Albanian society became very dire. During the year 1990, most of the professors, doctors, police officers, judges, journalists, etc., were forcibly removed from work by the Serbian authorities, as a result many families were struggling for economic survival. The life of the Albanian population was endangered not only by the political situation as well as by the economic difficulties. Life in many Albanian families became difficult and almost unbearable, many families took the path of exile and left Kosovo. In this study, the difficulties and the political and economic situation of Albanian society will be mentioned only indirectly, in short points. This study aims to highlight a very humane event that began in Albanian families and society, and it all started in 1990. In this difficult and dark year for the Albanians in Kosovo, „a light began to shine in many families”, and the movement for the suppression of blood feuds and the reconciliation of Albanian families began. Blood feuds mostly happened between families, but they could also happen between entire tribes and could last for several decades. Despite the difficult circumstances, what makes 1990 more remarkable is the movement for social and spiritual liberation. This movement has historical importance for society in Kosovo because it broke „chains” of murders in Kosovo, reconciling thousands of people for a short historical period. Despite the extremely hard historical circumstances in which the society in Kosovo was during the 1990s, it was the movement for reconciliation that brought about a revival of Albanian society in Kosovo. The reconciliation movement led by Anton Çetta had an incredibly positive impact to the Albanian society. In addition to the fact that thousands of people agreed with this movement, what makes it even more remarkable is that it brought a positive effect to every family to the extent that many children born in the 1990s bear the names: Pajtim and Pajtime (reconciliation), as well as many places in which the reconciliations were being held in, calling them: Meadow of Reconciliation, Hill of Reconciliation, etc. This humanitarian event brought a positive impact to the entire Albanian society Anton Çetta became a symbol of reconciliation.

Οικογενειακές γλωσσικές πολιτικές Αλβανών μεταναστών: το σύνθετο τοπίο της γλωσσικής χρήσης ανάμεσα σε γονείς και παιδιά

Τhe paper presents a small-scale study on eight families of Albanian immigrants living in Crete, Greece, and their family language policies. The study draws from Bernard Spolsky’s framework and more recent approaches which foreground the children’s agency in shaping the family’s language policies. Our findings corroborate previous research among Albanian families in Greece showing that despite the dominance of the Greek language among second-generation speakers, the ethnic language is still very much in use in many families. In this paper we focus on the various patterns which arise with regard to communication between parents and children and on the ways in which the children’s language dominance and preference seem to interfere with the parents’ desires to maintain the ethnic language at home.

High Incidence of CPLANE1-Related Joubert Syndrome in the Products of Conceptions from Early Pregnancy Losses

The fetal monogenic causes of early pregnancy losses (EPLs) are mainly unknown, with only a few articles on the subject published. In our previous study of EPLs using whole-exome sequencing analysis, we confirmed a genetic diagnosis of CPLANE1-related Joubert syndrome (JS) in three EPLs from two couples and identified a relatively common CPLANE1 allele among our population (NM_001384732.1:c.1819delT;c.7817T>A, further after referred as “complex allele”). Pathogenic variants in the CPLANE1 (C5orf42) gene are reported to cause JS type 17, a primary ciliopathy with various system defects. To examine the hypothesis that the CPLANE1 “complex allele,” whether homozygous or compound heterozygous, is a common cause of EPLs in our population. Cohort study/case-control study.ontrol study. In this study, we used polymerase chain reaction-based methods to screen for CPLANE1 “complex allele” presence among 246 euploid EPLs (< 12 gestational weeks) from families in North Macedonia. We also investigated the impact of this allele in 650 women with EPLs versus 646 women with no history of pregnancy loss and at least one livebirth, matched by ethnic origin. We found a high incidence of JS in the total study group of EPLs (2.03%), with a considerably higher incidence among Albanian families (6.25%). Although not statistically significant, women with EPLs had a higher allele frequency of the CPLANE1 “complex allele” (AF = 1.38%) than the controls (AF = 0.85%; p = 0.2). Albanian women had significantly higher frequency of the “complex allele” than the Macedonians (AF = 1.65% and 0.39%, respectively; p = 0.003). To the best of our knowledge, this is the highest reported incidence of fetal monogenic disease that might cause EPLs. Targeted screening for the CPLANE1 “complex allele” would be warranted in Albanian ethnic couples because it would detect one JS in every 16 euploid EPLs. Our findings have a larger impact on the pathogenesis of pregnancy loss and contribute to a better understanding of the pathogenicity of the variants in the CPLANE1 gene.

Paralelni Univerzitet u Prištini, 1991-1999: Funkcionisanje, izazovi i mirni otpor

University of Prishtina, serving as an institution of education and science and as a centre of Albanian democratic and cultural movements, since its foundation was amongst the institutions on the target of Serbian regime. Upon abolition of the autonomy of Kosovo in 1989, the Serbian regime started the discriminatory policies against the Albanian population, the overwhelming majority population in Kosovo, including the expulsion of the Albanian pupils and students from the schools and university premises, massive dismissals from work, etc. It was the academic year 1991/1992 when the doors of the University of Prishtina were closed to Albanian students and teachers. The University of Prishtina and its campus in the center of the capital Prishtina, libraries, institutes and student dormitories all remained available to Serbian and other non-Albanian teachers and students. The Albanian population created a parallel state, a unique example in the world, and such state created the parallel institutions in various fields of life, such as health, culture and education, including also the parallel University of Prishtina. This paper, in light of the sources of the time (documents in the Archive of the Rectorate of University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina”, published reports of the international organisations, press of the time) and the relevant historiography aims at elaborating: the initial protests and resistance of Albanian professors and students against the violent measures imposed by the Serbian regime; how the students and teachers were expelled from the facilities of the University of Prishtina; the procedures and the circumstances under which was established the Parallel University of Prishtina; how this parallel university functioned in the situation of pressure and continuous violence from the Serbian regime, at private facilities in the suburbs of the city; how the entire Albanian population from Kosovo was mobilized to support this university. The paper offers data from the unpublished documents which are stored at the Archive of the Rectorate of the University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina”, regarding the number of planned and enrolled students, which indicates how the political situation was reflected on the number of students who attended the university studies. Particular attention in the paper was paid to the students’ protests of 1997 by elaborating how this Parallel University, through the peaceful student protests, influenced the sensitizing of the international institutions and media on the question of the Albanian people in Kosovo. It emphasizes the important role of students represented by Independent Union of Students of the University of Prishtina (Unioni i Pavarur i Studentëve i Universitetit të Prishtinës - UPSUP), who gained the support and encouragement of international political personalities of the time for the continuation of peaceful student activism. Despite all the drastic challenges the Parallel University of Prishtina functioned in all the segments that characterize a university. All managerial mechanisms were developed, teaching was held in three cycles of study, even though only private premises were available but no laboratories, libraries and dormitories, new students were enrolled, staff were continuously recruited and promoted, and university textbooks were prepared. However, due to many factors, including the emigration of the Albanian population, the continuous violence by the Serbian police, and the financial difficulties of Albanian families, the number of students was constantly decreasing. In addition, this situation impacted their learning. The lack of literature and laboratories, teaching and learning in private premises and homes, the constant dangers and mistreatment by the Serbian regime, were making university studies a very difficult mission. However, the Parallel University of Prishtina turned into a centre of peaceful resistance and a symbol of determination to continue studies and advancement in the Albanian language regardless of the extreme political and social situation. The University did not interrupt the work even in the state of war, until 21 March 1999. All this readiness, will and peaceful resistance had gained the attention and respect of international opinion.

Older People’s Contribution to Development Through Carework: The Role of Childcare by Grandparents in Migration and Development

This article applies a generational lens to understanding the role of older people in development, focusing primarily on older parents who stay in areas of origin while their adult children emigrate. An emerging body of literature from around the world demonstrates that older parents frequently provide childcare for their migrant family members, mainly in the country of origin, and sometimes through migrating themselves. This article goes further. It makes the conceptual argument that this carework should be regarded as development work. Drawing on research into Albanian families, located in Albania and Greece, the article asks how does carework by older people contribute to development and what are the relations of power around this? The analysis shows that grandparents provide significant support particularly for childcare but also for social reproduction and critically for building and maintaining productive assets and safety nets for migrants in their home country. In short, grandparent carers are the lynchpins in complex intergenerational strategies of migration and livelihood development. The analysis contributes to the literature on migration and development by bringing older people from the margins to the centre of these debates. Older people’s childcare, together with other productive and reproductive activities that they undertake for migrant children in countries of origin, is central to invisibilized ‘economies of care’ that underpin migration’s contribution to development. Moreover, this carework by older people contributes to development in home and host countries, thus bridging the Global South–Global North divide. Finally, older people’s carework is gendered, with older women doing the vast majority. Taken together, these insights disrupt two dominant (economistic and Eurocentric) narratives that: (a) development in migration contexts only happens in the Global South and (b) the most significant drivers of this development are migrants’ social and financial remittances from the Global North.

Arnavutların 1934 yılında Kosova’dan Arnavutluk’a göçüne bir bakış

The paper provides detailed data on the Albanian families who moved from Kosovo to Albania during 1934, relying on the archival data of the Central Archive of Albania. Based on the researched documents, we have provided data on the migration of Albanians from Kosovo, their settlement in Albania, the families that moved to Albania, the number of members specifying them by name, surname, origin, the reason for the migration, the place where they settled, etc.

Photographic Practices among Albanian Families in Kosovo

Photography records “the cultural inventory” not only of material culture but also of relationships between people. As John Collier Jr. wrote, “the photographic inventory can record not only the range of artifacts in a home but also their relationship to each other, the style of their placement in space, all the aspects that define and express the way in which people use and order their space and possessions” (Collier, John, Jr., and Malcolm Collier. 1986. Visual Anthropology, Photography as a Research Method. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 45). In this paper the family photography practices among Albanian families in Kosovo will be discussed. The paper will focus on the practices about (a) what they do with photography, (b) what it offers them, (c) how they treat it, (d) how attitudes toward photography have changed through generations, (e) how family photography presents the Kosovar family, (f) intergenerational connection, power and the idea of an ideal family, and so on. I analyze the differences between generations in family photographic practices from 1950 till 2014, and will look into the importance that photography has for family continuity and communion, based on stories collected about the deportation of families and their separation during the 1999 war in Kosovo. How did Albanian people try to hide family photos during that war, and how did their photos survive during it? How are people linked through family photography? What is compensated through photographs?

Education and motivation of students in isolation conditions from the COVID-19 pandemic

This study aims to investigate the education and motivation of students in the conditions of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of Albania. In March 2020, as in other countries, education in Albania was faced with the great dilemma of how teaching would take place in conditions of isolation from the pandemic. We emphasize in advance that Albanian families, in general, use electronic devices such as smartphones, laptops, tablets, or desktops. There is a cable internet network for every family. We also point out that there were families with a lack of computer equipment and internet access.The main findings of the research on the development of the learning process in the context of the pandemic, result: Initial problems of distrust over the development of online teaching, the main challenges in the education sector related to insufficient digital skills for teachers and students to use learning platforms, difficulties in preparing teaching materials for the transmission of subject content at a distance, aspects of motivation and engagement of students in online learning.

Production of traditional soft white cheese in Albanian families from cow's milk

The production of traditional cheese in Albanian families from cow's milk has an early tradition and now yours is still largely being produced. This scientific paper is about to describe the traditional method and chemical composition of milk used to produce soft white cheese, the economic benefits of which are still widely used. The non-standardized milk used for the production of this type of cheese, has an average of 3.53% fat, according to the sisters that were taken from 25 families in different villages of Kosova. The amount of milk used for production is from 5 l to 20 l of milk for a production process. The required amount of milk for the production of one kilogram of cheese is from 3.5 l to 4 l of milk. We have continuously followed the whole process of cheese production: from milking the cows to preparing the cheese for the market. We performed three experiments for each family (25 families in total) and took three samples from each family for both milk and cheese (75 analysis of milk and 75 analysis of cheese = 150 x 11 = 1650 analysis in total). We made the calculations statistically. Physico-chemical analyzes of milk and cheese were performed at the National Agricultural Institute of Kosova in Peja.

Albania’s urban and territorial dimension was a product of the savage communist past and the difficult transition of the country

Albania of the fourth decade of transition presents a series of problems related to the urban and territorial development. This paper analyzes the initial causes of urban and territorial problems, which are correlated to the savage communist past and beginnings of the political and economic transition of the country. At the end of the communist regime, Albania was one of the countries of the socialist camp with the highest level of implementation of the ideology, principles and practices of Stalinist socialism, which made the Albanian political transition very difficult. Lack of democratic heritage, high level of indoctrination of society and especially the ruling elite of the transition, were the main reasons for this delay. The economic transition of the country also presented a strong challenge. The central planning economy, in the last years of its implementation, would fail in many respects. This would bring, not only an extreme poverty of Albanian families in the moments of transition, but also a real lack of economic activities, which in a private management could bring more employment to the population in the future. This general context of the transition would reflect the same difficulties in the transition of territorial governance, as an integral part of the transition as a whole. The liberal and democratization reforms pursued in the early years would include land ownership, buildings, housing, urban planning and development processes. As a consequent, the country has experienced a high decline in the resident population, as a result of foreign emigration. But what influenced the strong changes of the urban, territorial and spatial dimension of the country, was internal migration. This massive internal migration would reshape the territorial model of population distribution across national territory, the spatial structure of the inhabited centers and the urban quality of life in Albanian cities. There are four most important preconditions that would produce this massive internal migration, which originate from the savage communist past and the political and economic transition reforms: the inability of the territorial government to understand its new role in urban and territorial issues; the decline of basic public services (education, health) as a result of the departure of ‘nominees’ from the party-state in cities different from those of their origin; loss of employment of citizens in state-owned, bankrupt, closed or in-the-process–of-privatization enterprises; free movement of citizens and freedom to choose residence. Two would be the main financiers of this construction development that shaped the urban and territorial model of the country, which originate from the political and economic transition reforms: income provided by interaction in the free market of real estate from citizens who had privatized state-owned housing in their use; remittances provided in emigration, after allowing the free movement of citizens outside the national territory.

The Tradition of Wedding Gifts in Albanian Families during the Middle Ages (1368 -1451)

An important feature to which Arbanon families during the Middle Ages paid a special attention on the occasion of marriage were the dowries, gifts and various privileges, which were given not only by family members but also by a wider ring. In the Middle Ages, in the Arbanon lands, on the occasion of a girl marriage, the giving of the dowry was practiced, which was usually given in the form of a real estate or money (perpera, exagia). The dowry was practiced by noble families as well as by other society strata. Certainly, the value of the dowry within Arbanon noble families was greater, thus certain lands were given. The aim of this paper was not only to introduce or point out the type or value of the dowry and gifts, but also to review some samples, as far as the documentary data provides, in order to point out their role and status in the marriage, because the dowry given to a girl was an exclusive right of her and then of her husband, which could be used accordingly to their needs or requirements, since it might have positively affect the economic condition of a family. Of course, noble albanian families had a higher dowry value where usually were given certain territories. The dowry was usually given by parents and there were occasions when dowry was given by authorized persons. In addition to dowry, different presents were provided not only by family members or relatives, but also by leaders of neighboring countries at the time of marriage. Such presents were mentioned on the occasion of the marriage of Gjergj II Strazimir, Balsha III, as well as Gjergj Kastrioti-Skënderbeu.

Gender Inequalities Among Adults and Children: Exposure to Migration and the Evolution of Social Norms in Albania

This paper studies the distribution of resources within Albanian families in 2012 using a collective consumption model with two alternative specifications: the first enables the estimation of the intrahousehold distribution of resources among male adults, female adults and children; the second extends the analysis to girls and boys. In line with previous evidence on gender inequality in Albania, the results show that the female share of resources is substantially lower with respect to the male share, and that sons receive a larger share of resources than daughters. Considering that Albania experienced massive migration and return of young men in the 20 years before the survey, we further analyze the potential migration-induced transfer of gender norms. We find that the time spent abroad by the husband of the main couple has little influence on woman’s relative position within the households, however it does seem to favor a more equal treatment between daughters and sons. This result suggests that gender norms are more persistent in adult couples, however gender attitudes towards offspring are more elastic to social change.

Remittances to Albania: Before and after the COVID-19 Pandemic

This paper aims to advance an understanding of the flows of remittances resulting from Albanian migration before and after coronavirus, their impact on the country’s development and ways to mitigate the effects of the pandemic and ensure resilience of remittance families in Albania. Over the years, migrants’ remittances have played an important role in the social and economic development of Albania and Albanian families. The health emergency caused by the Covid-19 pandemic is expected to reshape our economy and could be devastating for migrants too. This pandemic is expected to change the context for international migration and potentially cause a decrease in remittances from Albanian migrants. And yet, surprisingly, there is a lack of effective mechanisms, policies, and recovery paths for increasing the positive impact of remittances on the country's development. The paper suggests that the way remittances are managed is important. Based on the context of Albania, remittances can be encouraged and facilitated through developing private-public-people partnerships, lowering costs, and using them for entrepreneurial initiatives rather than consumption. The key contributions of the paper lie in extending discussions of the value of collecting data on remittances, providing a dynamic view of the multiplicity of factors behind remittances.

PERTINENT USE OF DIASPORA REMMITANCE –VITIA CASE

Albanian Diaspora is present throughout the world and is large in numbers. A substantial emigration from Kosovo has been taken place in various phases during the second half of the 20th century as Albanians in Kosovo, Macedonia and Albania as well. Albanians generally know the burden of migration. Albanian families have at least one of their close family member or a relative living and working outside Kosovo. For many decades main financial resources from our compatriots have been uncontested and a living source for Kosovo families! In addition, diaspora marks dynamics and drive of money as in construction and trade, and its peak is during the winter and summer holidays. Therefore, we were interested in the most inclusive way and locally to focus on remittances of our compatriots who are from the city of Vitia and surroundings. Interest to investigate this development realized since the municipality of Vitia this year (2016) continually supported the migrants to invest and aid them to channel their humanitarian resources through official and transparent channels by organizing different events and joint cultural gatherings. Maybe, a little bit to alleviate poverty in this city and to deepen cooperation further. The municipality of Vitia is located in south-eastern Kosovo. It covers an area of approximately 276 km² and includes Vitia town and 38 villages. The total population is approximately 47,000 (46,987 according to the Kosovo Population and Housing Census 2011).170 It's interesting that Vitia’s diaspora is very powerful and active always ready to help its people whenever it’s needed. Approximately more than 35% of Vitia’s inhabitants work and live in Switzerland and Germany. Approximately every second village has its respective association in the city where they live, in Switzerland or Germany.

Between Istanbul and Venice: Agency, Faith, and Empire in the Sixteenth Century

Noel Malcolm’s Agents of Empire: Knights, Corsairs, Jesuits and Spies in the Sixteenth-Century Mediterranean World brilliantly excavates and reconstructs the lives of the members of the Bruni and the Bruti, two prominent Albanian families, whose members played significant roles in the political and military history of the Ottoman and Venetian Empires. This review essay attempts to place this important work in the broader context of Malcolm’s oeuvre and, in particular, to assess the book’s contributions to our understanding of agency, religion, and empire in the early modern period.

How the Early Childhood Well-Being Lies within the Family Context in Albania

Family and young children interaction constitutes an intricate piece of the reconstructed human behaviors and relations that dominate the current sociodemographic transition in Albania. We argue here that the recent macro demographic and social changes, which indicate an entry into the second demographic transition, are also articulated in the family micro-level relationships. In particular, our interest has led us to explore whether the divergences in family behaviour and attitudes concerning inequalities expressed in the wealth position and empowerment status of mothers have implications for the well-being of young children. Micro-level data from the 2008–2009 Albanian Demographic and Health Survey (ADHS) for children under five were used for this analysis. The sub-sample of 541 children from 3 to 5 years of age is examined related to achievements in several aspects of well-being. We put forward that the Albanian families who are still distant from the second demographic-transition model in terms of living arrangements pose a burden on the quality of life for the young children.

Language Policiy for the Tendency of the Sound Complex in the Albanian Anthroponymy and Patronymic

The authors reflects on the progress of anthroponymy and patronomy sounds tendency and its applied linguistic policy in the last century and the beginning of the new millennium. The research is carried out in two periods: during and post-communism. The authors have done a long-time research on this topic, which has resulted in an accurate argumentative discourse on pre-linguistic choices of these sonoric complex usages in family discourse. The authors have listed carefully the entry of Illyrian/Albanian names and the tendency of sonoric usages, which were part of language planning process; and everything is argued on the basis of national spirit of the time. The linguistic policy of entering of Illyrian names into family discourse is also seen as a general trend of Renaissance (1730-1912) for the purpose of restoring historic memory to Albanians. After the 1990-s, the beginning of democracy in Albania, nonetheless the publishing of the study on newborn names, the linguistic policy has never been applied for many reasons. For the last two years, 2015-2016, linguistics, students, surveyors, educational secretaries, members of civil status, have listed a number of reasons on the choices of the names of newborns in Albania. The freedom of choice of the sonoric complex, the trend of names, the tendency of names in the western world, emigration, etc., are some of the reasons to justify the choices and the linguistic behavior of sonoric complexes. The study is carried out in several municipalities and it is noticed that sonoric choices are highly influenced by the trends in media. There is an avoidance of inherited muslim, catholic and orthodox names and of those names claimed by linguistic policy of 1970-1990. Such linguistic tendency is argued on national basis by making comparisons on the frequency of uses. Diachronic comparisons of Albanian names found in registers of different years reflect the cultural trends of the parents. Albanian families have been quite generous with the borrowings of names from other cultures. Borrowings, as an integral part of linguistic policy, are result of foreign literature, movies, history and fashion.

Agents of Empire: Knights, Corsairs, Jesuits and Spies in the Sixteenth-Century Mediterranean World by Noel Malcom

Reviewed by: Agents of Empire: Knights, Corsairs, Jesuits and Spies in the Sixteenth-Century Mediterranean World by Noel Malcom Marco Rochini Agents of Empire: Knights, Corsairs, Jesuits and Spies in the Sixteenth-Century Mediterranean World. By Noel Malcom. (New York: Oxford University Press. 2015. Pp. xxx, 604. $34.95. ISBN 978-0-19-026278-5.) Historiography has paid particular attention to Mediterranean history, which is not surprising considering the importance this sea (surrounded by the coasts of Europe, Asia and Africa) had as a business, political, and cultural trade area among these three continents. Serving as a connecting zone between the confessional states in Europe and the Ottoman Empire, during the modern age the Mediterranean has been the stage where numerous characters acted, and who, despite their different responsibilities, contributed to connecting the Christian West with the Muslim East. In this context, alongside the figures with institutional tasks at the service of the States, there were also corsairs, spies, interpreters, religious people, and political intermediaries who played a significant role, which historiography has acknowledged only partially up to now. Considering this subject from this original point of view, Noel Malcom focuses his research on two Albanian families, Bruni and Bruti, which settled down and made a fortune in Ulcinj, a city situated in what is present-day Montenegro. In the sixteenth century, Albania was a barrier between East and West, which is to say the Christian world and the Muslim one. It was a trade area which also witnessed comparisons and debates among Catholicism, Protestantism, Judaism, and Islam. Formerly subject to the Republic of Venice, in the second half of the fifteenth century, Albania was under the influence of the Ottoman Empire. Taking into account an unpublished manuscript composed by Antonio Bruni about the history of his family, Malcolm focuses his attention on the political and cultural [End Page 130] landscape which characterized the relationship between the European States and the Ottoman Empire. Giovanni Bruni seems to have been a remarkable figure. An Albanian orator born in Ulcinj, he became archbishop of the diocese of Bar, a city situated on the border between the Ottoman territory and the areas under the influence of Greek Orthodox and Lutheran confessions. Thanks to this experience, which put him in touch with faiths and religious confessions different from Catholicism, in 1562 he was summoned by Pius IV to the Council of Trent (1545–1563), an occasion in which the Roman Church tried to define its confessional identity after the Protestant Reformation. When he returned to his diocese, he put into practice the Tridentine decrees. When control of Albania passed from the Venetian State to the Ottoman Empire, Giovanni was taken prisoner and put into the Ottoman galleys of the 1571 Battle of Lepanto. Thus, Giovanni was killed by a group of Spanish soldiers, who, overlooking his plea that he was a Catholic bishop, executed him. Together with Giovanni, his brother Gasparo is also remarkable. In 1567, he joined the Knights of Malta and, four years later, he took part in the Battle of Lepanto, playing a leadership role in the Christian fleet. Bartolomeo Bruti, cousin of Giovanni and Gasparo Bruti, worked as a translator at the Venetian embassy in Constantinopole. Surpassing national and religious borders, Bartolomeo offered his linguistic and political diplomatic skills indiscriminately to Venice, Spain, and the Ottoman Empire. Malcolm’s original and accurate research, focusing on very interesting unpublished sources, helps us to understand the unique role of the Mediterranean during the early modern age, before the main political and trading routes moved to the Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea. Thanks to the coexistence of different factors, such as its small size and mild climate, the Mediterranean became an area of cultural debate and confrontation, which contributed in shaping the identity of Europe and Asia in the modern age. Thanks to trade, political relations, and war, the Mediterranean Sea brought into close contact three continents, facilitating the dialogue and exchange of knowledge between different societies, languages, religions, and cultures. Thus, Malcolm’s work may serve for integrating the historiographical interpretation, which focuses on geographic-political borders as a key element for understanding modern Europe and their consequences for political and...