Compound TiAl Research Articles

Microstructure evolution, elemental diffusion behavior, and bonding strength of TA1/AZ31B laminated composite fabricated by hot pressing

Ti/Mg composites can combine the benefits of Ti and Mg in terms of mechanical properties, cost, and other factors, making them highly valuable for various applications. In this study, Ti/Mg laminate composites were prepared by vacuum hot pressing at temperatures of 350 °C, 400 °C, and 450 °C for 6 h, 8 h, and 10 h, respectively. The study aimed to examine the effect of the diffusion behavior of elements and microstructure on the bonding strength of Ti/Mg laminate composites. The shear strength test results indicated that the laminated composites displayed a strong bonding strength at 400 °C, while a significant decrease in bonding strength was noted at 350 °C and 450 °C. Results of TEM analysis show that when the temperature is 350 °C, the intermetallic compound is not observed at the interface; when the temperature increased to 400 °C, a transition region along the interface is observed, and there is a Ti3Al compound in the region, the compound is uniformly distributed along the interface; when the preparation temperature is 450 °C, intermetallic compounds were observed at the interface, and the compounds were TiAl, TiAl was not uniformly distributed along the interface. EBSD analysis showed that in the Mg matrix of the composites, the distribution of coarse crystals and fine crystals was obvious due to the dynamic recrystallization, and such a distribution of grain size was also conducive to the further enhancement of the bonding strength of the composites. It can be concluded that the formation of intermetallic compounds with a continuous distribution of the transition region caused by elemental diffusion and the enhancement of the mechanical properties at the matrix are both effective in improving the bond strength of composites.

Microstructure evolution and nitriding mechanism of Ti‐6Al‐4 V alloy in alumina‐based refractories

AbstractThe aims of this study were to explore the nitriding mechanism of Ti‐6Al‐4 V alloy in Al2O3‐based refractories. Al2O3‐based composite refractories were fabricated using Ti‐6Al‐4 V and sintered alumina as main materials, followed by nitriding at different temperatures in a nitrogen atmosphere. Phase and microstructure evolution of the products was analyzed by X‐ray diffraction and field‐emission scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy. The results reveal a multi‐stage nitridation process of Ti‐6Al‐4 V at different temperatures. At 900°C, nitridation of the Ti‐6Al‐4 V surface results in the formation of a (Ti,V)N solid solution, while Al and V migrate inward, forming intermetallic compounds Ti3Al and a‐Ti (Ti1‐x‐yVxAly) with rich Al and V. At 1100°C, nitridation of Ti3Al produces intermediate products like Ti2AlN or Ti3AlN, with continued inward migration of Al or V to form the intermetallic α2 phase of (Ti1‐xVx)3yAly in the center of the alloy particles. At 1300°C, decomposition of Ti2AlN or Ti3AlN results in the outward migration of Al atoms and the presence of AlN on the outer layer of Ti‐6Al‐4 V particles, thus forming a hollow structure. Finally, at 1500°C, the (Ti,V)N solid solution grains grow as a result of further diffusion and dissolution of nitrogen.

Direct Synthesis of Ti-Al Compound Powders by Electrolysis in Molten LiCl-KCl

The deposition potential difference between Ti and Al is only 70 mV. The deposition reaction of Ti-Al compound happens at the potentials slightly higher than that of metallic Ti and Al. Through galvanostatic electrolysis of mixture solution of Al and Ti ions, all kinds of titanium aluminides can be directly synthesized. The composition of the product compound can be selected through adjusting the combination of Ti and Al ions in the electrolyte.

Effect of pressure on microstructure and properties of Ti–Al coating on titanium alloy surface

The effect of pressure on the microstructure and properties of Ti–Al coating on titanium alloy surface is studied. Ti–Al coating is prepared on the surface of titanium alloy by pressure-assisted high-temperature thermal diffusion. The manufacturing method is simple and easy to operate. The microstructure and element distribution of the coating are analyzed under different processes, and the composition of the coating is tested. The test results show that the substrate alloy and the coating alloy are not connected when the coating is diffused at 650 °C. The coating diffused at 750 °C without pressure is mostly connected to the substrate, but there are microscopic gaps in some areas. The main components of the coating diffused at 750 °C under 80 Pa pressure are TiAl, Ti3Al, and other intermetallic compounds. The boundary between the substrate and the coating is flat, and there is no obvious micro gap, so the metallurgical connection is fundamentally realized. In addition, the maximum hardness can reach 334.9HV0.2. The thickness of the coating diffused at 750 °C under 160 Pa pressure was greatly reduced, showing a gradient form. The surface quality of the outer coating is poor, the structure density of the binding layer is also poor, and there are no obvious penetrating cracks. The bonding between the coating and the substrate is effectively enhanced by an auxiliary action under certain pressure, and then the microstructure and properties of the coating are improved.

Investigation of interfacial microstructure and connection mechanism of magnetic field-assisted magnesium/aluminum laser welding joint

Variable process experiments to prepare hybrid joints of AZ31 magnesium (Mg) and 6061 aluminum (Al) alloys by magnetic field-assisted laser welding were performed in an overlap Mg-on-Al configuration with the addition of titanium (Ti) foil. Temperature field and flow field of molten pool including chemical potential of each element were also calculated. It is shown that at the optimal welding parameters, the shear force of joint reaches 887.79 N, which is 83.4 % higher than that of no-added joint. In the case of external magnetic field, the improved mechanical properties of joints largely depend on the diffusional barrier effect of Ti foil, which benefits from the enhanced energy absorption and flow of molten pool leading to the enlargement of interface connection area and the formation of Ti-Al compounds such as TiAl3 at Mg/Al interface. Meanwhile, the grains refines due to the magnetic field, which reduces the strain at the joint and enhances the uniformity of the interface microstructure. However, under the condition of excessive magnetic field strength, the enhanced stirring effect of molten pool will cause Ti foil break and the direct interaction between Mg and Al, which deteriorates the joint properties.

Investigation of the physical properties of the metal (Co, Cr, Mn, Sc) doped TiAl3 compounds: A DFT study

In this paper, the elastic and electronic properties of Metal (M = Co, Cr, Mn, Ni, Sc) - TiAl3 are compared based on the first-principles calculation method based on density functional theory, and the Metal-TiAl3 Mechanical, thermodynamic and electronic properties of TiAl3 intermetallic compounds. The results of mechanical property calculations show that the structures of Sc-TiAl3 and V-TiAl3 are the most stable. The ability of Sc-TiAl3 to resist volume deformation and shear deformation is larger. The Poisson's ratio ν is less than 0.33, and it can be determined that the calculated compounds are brittle materials (except Ni-TiAl3). Cr-TiAl3 has the largest intrinsic Vickers hardness, while Ni-TiAl3 has the smallest intrinsic Vickers hardness. This study has a significant impact on adjusting the mechanical properties of TiAl3.

The Effect of Nb Doping on the Properties of Ti-Al Intermetallic Compounds Using First-Principles Calculations.

The crystal structures, stability, mechanical properties and electronic structures of Nb-free and Nb-doped Ti-Al intermetallic compounds were investigated via first-principles calculations. Seven components and eleven crystal configurations were considered based on the phase diagram. The calculated results demonstrate that hP8-Ti3Al, tP4-TiAl, tP32-Ti3Al5, tI24-TiAl2, tI16-Ti5Al11, tI24-Ti2Al5, and tI32-TiAl3 are the most stable phases. Mechanical properties were estimated with the calculated elastic constants, as well as the bulk modulus, shear modulus, Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio and Pugh's ratio following the Voigt-Reuss-Hill scheme. As the Al content increases, the mechanical strength increases but the ductility decreases in the Ti-Al compounds. This results from the enhanced covalent bond formed by the continuously enhanced Al-sp hybrid orbitals and Ti-3d orbitals. Nb doping (~5 at.% in this study) keeps the thermodynamical and mechanical stability for the Ti-Al compounds, which exhibit slightly higher bulk modulus and better ductility. This is attributed to the fact that the Nb 4d orbitals locate near the Fermi level and interact with the Ti-3d and Al-3p orbitals, improving the metallic bonds based on the electronic structures.

TiAl-Based Oxidation-Resistant Hard Coatings with Different Al Contents Obtained by Vacuum-Pulse-Arc Granule Melting

A method was proposed for increasing the oxidation resistance of promising wrought Ti2AlNb ortho-alloys by depositing γ-TiAl-based coatings. Using original vacuum pulse-arc melting of 100 μm thick granule layers, coatings with different Al/Ti ratios and a thickness of 50–60 µm were obtained on the surface of the Ti50Al25Nb25 alloy. Granules Ti50Al44Nb4.9Mo1B0.1 (at.%), 20–60 μm in size, were employed. To vary Al content, initial granules and their mixture with Al powder were used. Excellent adhesion of the coatings is ensured by the similar chemical composition and structure of the substrate and coatings, as well as micro-metallurgical reactions between granules and the substrate that occur during treatment. The resulting coatings had a submicron gradient structure consisting of TiAl and Ti3Al intermetallic compounds. During oxidation at 850 °C for 10 h, an oxide layer consisting of a mixture of α-Al2O3, TiO2, and AlNbO4 was formed on the coating surfaces. With an increase in the annealing duration to 100 h, a dense α-Al2O3 oxide layer, approximately 0.5 µm thick, was formed over the primary oxide mixture, the quality of which was higher in coatings enriched with aluminum.

Microstructure and corrosion property of TC4 coating with Al0.5CoCrFeNi high-entropy alloy interlayer by laser cladding

In this work, TC4 coating was prepared on 45 steel surface successfully by laser cladding and Al0.5CoCrFeNi high-entropy alloys (HEA) coating was designed as an intermediate layer. Microstructure, microhardness and electrochemical corrosion characteristics of TC4/HEA composite coating were evaluated in detail. The interfaces without cracks of HEA layer/substrate and TC4 layer/HEA layer are clear and straight, and a metallurgical bonding is obtained when the line energy density is 315 J/mm2 and 180 J/mm2. A reactive layer consisted of TiAl and TiFe intermetallic compounds (IMC) is formed at TC4/HEA interface. The HEA transition layers are composed of uniformly distributed equiaxed matrix (FCC) and intercrystalline phase (BCC), while a transition from Widmanstätten structure to coarse acicular crystal was found in TC4 layer. The microhardness of HEA coating is slightly higher than the substrate and lower than the TC4 coating, and the microhardness value of TC4 layer is up to 745.8 HV0.2. Potential dynamic polarization curves test results show that a comparatively small corrosion zone is concluded for TC4/HEA composite coating sample and the corrosion resistance of the composite coating is significantly improved with an increased value of 55.9 % in Ecorr (−0.325 V) and a decreased value of 99.3 % in Icorr (0.1 μA/cm2) compared to the substrate.

In-situ preparation and oxidation behavior of MgAl2O4 -containing ceramic/metal composite coatings via hot dipping

A ceramic/metal composite coating containing MgAl2O4 was in-situ synthesized on TC4 alloy (comprising Ti-6Al-4V) utilizing a hot dipping technique. This research delineates the three-tiered architecture of the composite coating, characterized by an external oxide layer composed of MgAl2O4-MgO-Al2O3, an intermediate layer featuring a TiAl2-Al2O3 amalgamation, and a intermetallic layer enriched with Ti-Al compounds. It was deciphered from comparative analysis that following a 150-h oxidation tenure, a transformation in the coating's morphology occurred, giving rise to a MgAl2O4-TiO2 outer oxide layer and a preserved Ti-Al intermetallic inner layer. A critical revelation was the emergence of a dense, continuous MgAl2O4-TiO2 layer proximal to Ti-Al intermetallic layer within the oxide stratum. This fortifying layer played a pivotal role in thwarting the further diffusion of O and Ti atoms, thus endowing the substrate with remarkable stability (≥500 h) at 850 °C in air.

Microstructure Evolution and Mechanical Properties of Thick 2219 Aluminum Alloy Welded Joints by Electron-Beam Welding.

In this study, 2219 aluminum alloy thick plate was joined by electron beam welding. Defect-free joints with excellent surface formation were obtained. There were significant differences in the microstructure along the thickness direction of the weld zone (WZ). The upper region of the WZ was mainly striated grains, while the lower region was fine equiaxed grains. The WZ of 2219 joint is composed of α-Al and Al-Cu eutectic. Fine equiaxed grains were formed in the partially melted zone (PMZ) due to the existence of high-melting nucleation particles including Ti-Al and Ti-Zr compounds. The eutectic microstructure in the PMZ and the heat-affected zone (HAZ) presented net-like and block-shape distribution. Due to the formation of fine grains and high content of Al-Cu eutectic, the WZ showed the highest microhardness (80 HV). Therefore, the 2219 joint obtained excellent mechanical properties. The tensile strength of the 2219 joint was equal to that of the base metal (BM), but the elongation of the 2219 joint significantly decreased to 15.1%, about 67.7% of that of BM. The fracture mode of the 2219 joint presented typical ductile fracture.

Partition the total energy of Al3Ti to characterize the Al3Ti/Al interface properties: a first-principles study

The geometric model of coplanar reciprocal lattice points (CRLPs) was used to predict the preferred orientation relationships (ORs) between the Al3Ti intermetallic particle and the Al matrix. The calculation result indicates that there exist two preferred ORs, i.e. (001)Al3Ti//(001)Al, [100]Al3Ti//[100]Al and (010)Al3Ti//(010)Al, [100]Al3Ti//[101¯]Al. The periodic models with a specific interface structure and surface slab models on a particular crystallographic plane were proposed to partition the total energy of the Al3Ti compound into its constituent atoms’ energies. The Ti and two kinds of Al atoms (Wyckoff notation 2b and 4d) possess the energy of -119.80325739 Ry, -5.09778518 Ry, and -5.03677683 Ry, respectively. Compared with the Al3Ti total energy of -269.94919247 Ry, the proposed energy partition scheme presents a satisfactory accuracy better than ∼10−7 Ry. Owing to the data of the atom's energy in the solid state, the definite value of surface energy can be obtained whether or not it is a stoichiometric or non-stoichiometric surface. The interface energy calculation, which was carried out on all the preferred ORs with all the possible atomic configurations, indicates that the energy-preferred interface possesses the orientation relationship of (001)Al3Ti//(001)Al, [100]Al3Ti//[100]Al. The atomic configuration is that the atoms on the surface of the Al slab face directly to atoms on the second layer of the Al3Ti slab with the Al-Ti terminated surface on account of its lowest interface energy of 0.005 J/m2. The predicted OR agrees well with the previously published experimental results, and the significantly lower interface energy explains the potency of the Al3Ti particle as a heterogeneous nucleation site in the aluminum solidification process.

Additive manufacturing of Ti–6Al–4V/Al–Cu–Mg multi-material structures with a Cu interlayer

Titanium–aluminum (Ti–Al) multi-material structures have tremendous potential for use in lightweight applications. Laser powder-bed fusion (LPBF) enables the preparation of multi materials owing to its high flexibility of material modulation. However, LPBF-produced Ti–Al multi-materials are highly susceptible to interface cracking. Here, we demonstrated a novel interface welding method of unwetting titanium and aluminum alloys in LPBF by introducing a copper interlayer, which is guided by thermodynamic calculations. The Cu interlayer effectively prevented the formation of Ti–Al IMCs and suppressed interface cracking. Multi-material Ti–6Al–4 V/Al–Cu–Mg (TiA/AlA) gyroid lattices were successfully prepared via LPBF and their deformation mechanisms were revealed both experimentally and computationally. Notably, multi-material TiA/AlA lattices where TiA and AlA were directly bonded suffered from severe interface cracking caused by detrimental Ti–Al compounds. By comparison, multi-material TiA/Cu/AlA lattices were crack-free at the interface and showed a local shear fracture mode where AlA portion deforms first, followed by the TiA portion without interfacial collapse, indicating the location-specific properties.

Experimental Investigation and Thermodynamic Modelling of Ag–In–Pd Ternary System

Phase equilibria in Ag–In–Pd ternary system were studied using Scanning electron microscopy, Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and X-Ray diffraction method (XRD). The solubilities of the third components in Ag–In and In–Pd binary phases were established, as well as composition ranges (from 4 to 17.5 at % Ag at 25 at % In) and crystal structure of τ ternary compound (Al3Ti). New thermodynamic assessment of Ag–In–Pd ternary system was performed, basing on the published experimental data and those obtained in the present work. Good agreement was achieved between the calculation results and the experimental data on phase equilibria and thermodynamic properties of the phases. The results of the calculation reproduce well experimental DTA/DSC data of three samples (the data were not included into the optimization). This additionally supports the correctness of the obtained thermodynamic description.

Effect of adding Nb foil on joint properties of laser fusion welding for TC4 titanium and 7075 aluminum alloy

It is difficult to gain effective Ti-Al fusion welding joints due to their differences in thermal properties and the appearance of brittle Ti-Al Intermetallic Compounds (IMCs). The experiments of laser fusion welding for TC4 titanium and 7075 aluminum alloy were carried out, temperature field and ductility/brittleness, as well as chemical potential of elements, were calculated, and the effect of adding Nb foil on mechanical properties of the weld was also investigated. The results suggested that Nb atoms tend to diffuse toward Al side, which is conducive to the participation of Nb in the metallurgical reaction and contributes to forming the Ti-Nb-Al IMC layer at the interface. As the thickness of Nb foil increases, the tensile-shear force of joint climbs first but then declines, and reaches the highest value of 1663 N with 0.10 mm-thickness Nb foil, representing 58.38% enhancement compared with the non-added one. Adding Nb foil slows down the heat transfer as a blocker, and thus both the melting amount of Al and the mixing area of Ti and Al decrease. In addition, Nb alloying reduces the brittleness of the Ti-Al compound. Hence, the joint properties of titanium/aluminum are improved with the addition of Nb foil.

NiTi-SiC composite coating on Ti6Al4V alloy produced by SHS using induction heating

Abstract In this study, NiTi and NiTi-XSiC (1 wt%, 2 wt%, and 4 wt%) powders were coated on the Ti6Al4V surface by the self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS) method using induction heating. Optic microscope and a scanning electron microscope (SEM) for the microstructural properties of coatings, energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) for element distribution analysis, and X-ray diffractogram (XRD) for phase component analysis were carried out. The microhardness difference between the coating and the substrate was assessed by using the Vickers hardness scale. The microhardness increased with the addition of SiC, and the highest hardness value was 1416 Hv and detected in the sample NiTi–SiC 4 wt%. Phases formed by diffusion during solidification in the compounds Ti, Al, NiTi, NiTi2, NiAl, Ni3Al, Al3Ti, and TiO2, respectively.

Effects of Al-Ti-C Refiner and Forming Processes on the Microstructure and Properties of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Alloys.

In this paper, the refinement effect of Al-5Ti-0.2C refiner on Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys was first investigated, and then the effects of three forming processes, i.e., Gravity Casting (GC), Squeeze Casting (SC), and Squeeze Casting after Ultrasonic Treatment (UT-SC), on microstructure and properties of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys were studied. The results show that the refining effect of Al-5Ti-0.2C refiner is obvious; first, the average grain size of the alloy decreases and then increases with the increase in Ti content from 0.15 wt.% to 0.3 wt.%. The optimal amount of added Al-5Ti-0.2C is 0.2 wt.% Ti content. The good refining effect is attributed to the formation of TiC particles and Al3Ti compounds by the refiner, which can all be the nucleus of solidification. The poor refining effect when the Ti content was more than 0.2 wt.% is due to the formation of coarse Al3Ti particles. The results of three forming processes that cast Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys under the addition of Al-5Ti-0.2C with 0.2 wt.% Ti content show that the mechanical properties under the UT-SC process are the best; the tensile strength in the as-cast state reaches 367 MPa, and the elongation is 3.84%. The effect of tiny TiC particles in the refiner on the microstructure and properties of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys is also discussed.

Synergistic effect of oscillating laser-Nb foil on microstructure and mechanical properties of TC4/7075 dissimilar joints

Oscillating laser welding of TC4 titanium (Ti) to 7075 aluminum (Al) alloys with assistance of Nb foil was performed in an overlap Ti-on-Al configuration, and Nb foil was determined to improve the metallurgical reactions based on analysis from thermodynamic calculations. The synergistic effect of oscillating laser-Nb foil on microstructure and mechanical properties of TC4/7075 dissimilar joints was investigated. Results show that the reduction of Ti–Al joint properties is mainly due to the weak regions at Ti/Al interface composed of TiAl and TiAl3 compounds, where lattice distortion inside TiAl3 and the dislocations in Al matrix grains adjacent to TiAl3 are detected. A sound Ti/Al dissimilar joint is obtained under the beam rotation of oscillating laser assisted by Nb foil. The joint connection area is increased and interfacial heat input is reduced with the beam oscillation, which arises from the weakened heat transfer in penetration direction and heat absorption of Nb foil, thus it is beneficial to reducing the Al melting amount and preventing the overmixing and mutual diffusion between Ti and Al. At the optimal welding parameters, the maximum tensile-shear property of joints increases from 1663 N to 2131 N, representing a 28.14% enhancement compared with that of non-oscillation mode. Moreover, oscillating laser produces a significant effect on the metallurgical regulation of Nb foil, under which the phase composition at Ti/Al interface is replaced by Nb-containing Ti–Al compounds with lower brittleness, as well as some new phases like Ti2NbAl and NbAl3. However, when oscillation frequency is high, such as 100Hz, the melting amount of Nb foil is reduced, and the dual-interface joint is formed which is composed of Ti/Nb and Nb/Al interfaces, where the Nb metallurgy regulation is weakened.

Hydrothermal deposition of MoS2 on electrospark Ti – Al coatings on Ti6Al4V alloy and their characteristics

Antifriction layers on titanium alloy Ti6Al4V can be obtained by creating a developed structure of lubricant pockets, followed by the application of dry self-lubricating substances. The structure and tribological behavior of Ti – Al intermetallic coatings after hydrothermal deposition of molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) have been studied. Titanium aluminide coatings with a regular network of cracks were obtained by electrospark treatment of the Ti6Al4V alloy in an equimolar mixture of titanium and aluminum granules. To fill the lubricant voidnesses in the MoS2 coatings, the hydrothermal synthesis method was used in a solution of thiourea and sodium molybdate at 220 oC. The structure of the coatings was studied by X-ray diffraction analysis, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray microanalysis, and Raman spectroscopy. The wear resistance of the coatings was studied according to the ASTM G99 standard with dry sliding friction using counterbodies in the form of discs made of high-speed steel P6M5 at a speed of 0.47 m/s under a load of 25 N. It was found that intermetallic compounds Ti3Al, TiAl, TiAl3 and TiAl2 were overwhelming. In the structure of Ti – Al coatings, a regular network of cracks with a thickness of 0.77 ± 0.3 μm and a specific area on the coating surface of 2.2 ± 0.35% was established. It was shown that as a result of hydrothermal synthesis, a MoS2 layer is formed on the surface of the samples, consisting of spherical particles with a diameter of 3.09 ± 0.63 μm. Based on the data of energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) mapping, it was concluded that cracks in Ti – Al coatings are also filled with MoS2. According to the results of tribological tests, it was found that the hydrothermal deposition of MoS2 on Ti – Al coatings enables to reduce their friction coefficient by 30%, and the reduced wear in dry sliding friction by 2 times. The conducted studies show the promise of hydrothermal deposition of MoS2 on Ti – Al coatings in order to study tribotechnical properties.The study was supported by the Russian Science Foundation (No. 19-73-00031).

Effect of oscillating laser beam on the interface and mechanical properties of Ti/Al fusion welding joint

To solve the problem that cracks and brittle Ti-Al intermetallic compounds restrict the mechanical properties of Ti-Al joint, an effective connection method has been explored for laser welding of TC4 titanium alloy and 7075 aluminum alloy by oscillating laser beam, and the effect of oscillating laser beam on the interface and mechanical properties of Ti/Al fusion welding joint was also investigated. With the application of beam oscillation, some defects like pores and cracks can be avoided in welding joint, the connection width of interface layer is increased, and the diffusion of Al-to-Ti is suppressed due to the reduced interfacial heat input and the stirring effect induced by the keyhole rotating. As a result, Al-rich Ti-Al compound at interface is reduced while Ti-rich compound is formed. Generally, the property of Ti/Al joint can be significantly improved by the reduction of joint defects and the formation of lower brittle TiAl/Ti3Al compounds. As the oscillation frequency increase, the maximum load of the joint increases first but then decreases, and reached the highest value of 1852N when the 150 Hz oscillating frequency is applied, representing 76.38% enhancement compared with that without oscillation. However, under the condition of excessive oscillating frequency, the interface layer is too thin to form an effective connection, which deteriorates the joint properties.