Air Traffic Control Work Research Articles

Application of new human factors tool in an air traffic management organization

AimAn easy-to-use human factors (HF) tool for air traffic control (ATC) operators was applied in an air traffic management (ATM) organization to ensure ATC operators’ learning and commitment to HF, which is seen as a critical factor in improving safety. MethodsATC operators analyzed the positive and negative causal factors of 3163 incident reports in 2008–2010 using the HF tool in 27 ATC units. We studied the active usage of the HF tool and causal factors of incidents. Users’ experiences of the HF tool were assessed using questionnaires with open questions. ResultsAlthough the usage of the tool varied from year to year and across units, it helped ATC units analyze both positive and negative HF-related causal factors of incidents. It also enabled ATC operators to learn about the new field of HF. DiscussionThe target ATM organization accepted the new HF tool. The benefits of the tool were its visuality, user-friendliness and the congruence of its contents with existing HF tools. The lessons learnt revealed the need for more extensive training, clearer instructions for the users of the HF tool, and publicizing the actions based on the findings. ConclusionsThe application of a new HF tool in the target ATM organization was supported by the fact that it could be included as one of the core processes of ATC work (reporting system). Improving HF competence in the organization is recommended, to further improve ATC work and the safety of ATC operations. The HF tool would support this.

Research of Radar Controllers' Workload in Fuzzy Synthetic Evaluation Model

This issue aims at evaluating the radar controllers workload with Fuzzy matter-element analysis and grey relational analysis, based on every part of air traffic control work which takes services that air traffic controller offers to pilots and the radar control procedure into consideration. Focusing the result of evaluation this paper shows the relative membership grade between workloads and parts of the radar control work. The conclusion of this research helps improving controllers workload management and making the safety situation better.

Os sentidos e significados no trabalho de controlador de tráfego aéreo

O objetivo neste artigo foi compreender os sentidos e significados no trabalho de controlador de tráfego aéreo, elucidando sua importância para a segurança da população brasileira e considerando o destaque que a profissão recebeu na mídia a partir do problema do "apagão aéreo" no Brasil. Para tanto, de início, houve a necessidade de aprofundar algumas discussões teóricas sobre sentidos e significados do trabalho, com a intenção de entender aspectos relativos a esses conceitos. Após essas considerações teóricas, foi elucidado o percurso metodológico, destacando a modalidade de pesquisa, a maneira como foi executada, os sujeitos e o método de análise dos dados. Com esse percurso, foi possível, no tópico seguinte, entender os sentidos e significados do trabalho para os controladores entrevistados. Como conclusão, ficou evidente que, na profissão de controlador de tráfego aéreo, há, por exemplo, compatibilidade entre os anseios dos profissionais e as exigências da função.

Análise ergonômica de uma ferramenta de trabalho no controle de tráfego aéreo: percepção dos operadores e contribuições para a carga de trabalho

O objetivo do estudo foi avaliar as percepções dos operadores e as contribuições das fichas de progressão de vôo (strips) na carga de trabalho dos controladores de tráfego aéreo, à luz da Análise Ergonômica do Trabalho (AET). Participaram 35 operadores militares de ambos os sexos (80% masculino e 20% feminino), pertencentes à Força Aérea Brasileira, os quais desenvolviam suas funções no Segundo Centro Integrado de Defesa Aérea e Controle de Tráfego Aéreo (CINDACTA II), localizado em Curitiba/PR. Aplicou-se a metodologia da análise ergonômica do trabalho. Os resultados possibilitaram conhecer o conteúdo prescrito da strip eletrônica e a complexidade do trabalho na atividade real, como por exemplo, o preenchimento manual da strip e o plano de vôo AFIL. Verificou-se que os operadores constroem estratégias operatórias em termos de organização das strips a fim de facilitar o seu trabalho. Conclui-se que no trabalho do controlador de tráfego aéreo existe uma série de variáveis interagindo, e quando o conteúdo do trabalho requerido é diferente do que é estabelecido, a carga de trabalho aumenta, podendo colocar em risco a saúde dos trabalhadores e a segurança da aviação.

ОЦІНЮВАННЯ ЗАГРОЗ ТА РИЗИКІВ НА РОБОЧИХ МІСЦЯХ АВІАДИСПЕТЧЕРІВ ЗА ДОПОМОГОЮ НЕЧІТКИХ МНОЖИН

Наведено інформацію щодо результатів наукових досліджень в області оцінюваннязагроз та ризиків на робочих місцях авіадиспетчерів за допомогою нечітких множин.Information about outcomes of scientific researches in field of hazards and risks assessment atair traffic controllers workplaces is provided.Приведена информация о результатах научных исследований в области оценкиугроз и рисков на рабочих местах авиадиспетчеров с помощью теории нечеткихмножеств.

Analysis of the work of air traffic controllers of the approach control area (APP) of Porto Alegre, Brazil

This article presents a study on the activities of the air traffic controllers of the Approach Control Area (APP) of Porto Alegre, Brazil, in different real scenarios. Based on interviews, questionnaires and the analysis of film of real scenes, the following were identified and analyzed: i) the perceptions of risk and complexity of the different air traffic scenes observed; ii) the cognitive factors (knowledge, strategy and attention dynamics) involved in the task and iii) the perception of the controller's workload. The results showed that the task complexity depends on the weather conditions, the number and type of aircraft in observation and that the controllers perceive the scenes in a similar way irrespective of their time in the profession and the type of control (radar or coordination). Attention is the cognitive factor with the greatest impact on the work and mental demand has the greatest impact on workload followed by time demand. The literature on the controllers work in Brazil is scarce and, therefore, this study aimed to contribute to the understanding of the work in one APP in order to promote future changes in the very problematic Brazilian air traffic system.

How to reduce workload – augmented reality to ease the work of air traffic controllers

In the future the air traffic will rise--the workload of the controllers will do the same. In the BMWi research project, one of the tasks is, how to ensure safe air traffic, and a reasonable workload for the air traffic controllers. In this project it was the goal to find ways how to reduce the workload (and stress) for the controllers to allow safe air traffic, esp. at huge hub-airports by implementing augmented reality visualization and interaction.

From crisis to development – Analysis of air traffic control work processes

In this study an intervention to improve work processes in air traffic control (ATC) is evaluated. The background was the Finnish air traffic controllers’ strike of 1999. The old ways of thinking and acting did not support development of ATC prompting a need for a new kind of working culture in the organisation. Several actions were started. In one of these, ATC work processes were modelled by personnel and development plans concerning work were delivered to top management. Different actors (management, trade union, stakeholders) were interviewed before ( n = 16) and after the project ( n = 7). The intervention supported systematic co-operation between different actors in the organisation. However, a follow-up revealed that only a few participants had adopted the idea of continuous work development. Mastery of human factors is crucial in a high reliability work environment such as ATC. But how is the analytical and co-operative aspect kept alive in an organisation that is run by strict international regulation and has a strong technical competence, but is not that strong in collaborative and human aspects?

Exploring the Impact of Self-Directed Team Learning in an Air Traffic Control Environment

Experienced military air traffic controllers (25 respondents, males = 15, females = 10, years of experience = less than one year = 5 respondents, more than one year but less than three years = 11 respondents and more than three years = 9 respondents) participated in this study to determine whether self-directed team learning exists within their air traffic control teams and to understand the impact of self-directed team learning on the air traffic control work environment. Data on self-directed team learning and learning approaches were collected using a Self-directed Team Learning Questionnaire (SDTLQ) and a Learning Approaches Questionnaire (LAQ). These data were analysed using an inductive reasoning mode for qualitative data analysis and quantitative data analysis followed a supporting deductive reasoning mode. Triangulation as a technique was used to determine whether multiple sources of data agreed and to obtain better, cross-checked insights (Burgess, 1985). Results revealed that these air traffic controllers and air traffic control teams investigated in the study do indeed function within self-directed working, training and learning environments. The quality of team performance was influenced by self-directed team learning initiatives. Furthermore, the quality of self-directed team learning relied upon the effectiveness of air traffic control team performances.

Normal people working in normal organizations with normal equipment: System safety and cognition in a mid-air collision

A fundamental challenge in improving the safety of complex systems is to understand how accidents emerge in normal working situations, with equipment functioning normally in normally structured organizations. We present a field study of the en route mid-air collision between a commercial carrier and an executive jet, in the clear afternoon Amazon sky in which 154 people lost their lives, that illustrates one response to this challenge. Our focus was on how and why the several safety barriers of a well structured air traffic system melted down enabling the occurrence of this tragedy, without any catastrophic component failure, and in a situation where everything was functioning normally. We identify strong consistencies and feedbacks regarding factors of system day-to-day functioning that made monitoring and awareness difficult, and the cognitive strategies that operators have developed to deal with overall system behavior. These findings emphasize the active problem-solving behavior needed in air traffic control work, and highlight how the day-to-day functioning of the system can jeopardize such behavior. An immediate consequence is that safety managers and engineers should review their traditional safety approach and accident models based on equipment failure probability, linear combinations of failures, rules and procedures, and human errors, to deal with complex patterns of coincidence possibilities, unexpected links, resonance among system functions and activities, and system cognition.

Integrating human factors in the design of intelligent systems: an example in air traffic control

In the current organisation of air traffic control, some cooperative activities appear in the work of air traffic controllers, especially between Tactical Controllers (TC) and Planning Controllers (PC), who manage aircraft inside a sector to prevent collisions. These cooperative activities allow building and maintaining a Common Frame of References (COFOR) to be built and maintained. The COFOR is an internal representation of the situation, and introducing specific assistance based on this COFOR not only improves the effectiveness of the human activities, but also improves the controller's situation awareness and the human-machine cooperation. This article presents a study of a project called Automation and MAN-machine Delegation of Action (AMANDA), which proposes assistance to the controllers for resolving aerial conflict. In order to avoid decisional conflict between human operators and the assistance system, AMANDA integrates human strategies for calculating new trajectories that which avoid conflicts and communicates with controllers through a Common Work Space (CWS), which is a physical representation of the human operators' COFORs. This study took place in three steps. The first step, based on an experimental investigation, allowed the content of the COFOR to be defined. In the second step, the CWS supporting human-human and human-machine cooperation and the characteristics of the support tool were defined. In the last one, the proposed principles were evaluated by professional air traffic controllers.

Improved Military Air Traffic Controller Selection Methods as Measured by Subsequent Training Performance

Over the past decade, the U.S. military has conducted several studies to evaluate determinants of enlisted air traffic controller (ATC) performance. Research has focused on validation of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) and has shown it to be a good predictor of training performance. Despite this, enlisted ATC training and post-training attrition is higher than desirable, prompting interest in alternate selection methods to augment current procedures. The current study examined the utility of the FAA Air Traffic Selection and Training (AT-SAT) battery for incrementing the predictiveness of the ASVAB versus several enlisted ATC training criteria. Subjects were 448 USAF enlisted ATC students who were administered the ASVAB and FAA AT-SAT subtests and subsequently graduated or were eliminated from apprentice-level training. Training criteria were a dichotomous graduation/elimination training score, average ATC fundamentals course score, and FAA certified tower operator test score. Results confirmed the predictive validity of the ASVAB and showed that one of the AT-SAT subtests resembling a low-fidelity ATC work sample significantly improved prediction of training performance beyond the ASVAB alone. Results suggested training attrition could be reduced by raising the current ASVAB minimum qualifying score. However, this approach may make it difficult to identify sufficient numbers of trainees and lead to adverse impact. Although the AT-SAT ATC work sample subtest showed incremental validity to the ASVAB, its length (95 min) may be problematic in operational testing. Recommendations are made for additional studies to address issues affecting operational implementation.

Modeling and Predicting Mental Workload in En Route Air Traffic Control: Critical Review and Broader Implications

We perform a critical review of research on mental workload in en route air traffic control (ATC). We present a model of operator strategic behavior and workload management through which workload can be predicted within ATC and other complex work systems. Air traffic volume is increasing worldwide. If air traffic management organizations are to meet future demand safely, better models of controller workload are needed. We present the theoretical model and then review investigations of how effectively traffic factors, airspace factors, and operational constraints predict controller workload. Although task demand has a strong relationship with workload, evidence suggests that the relationship depends on the capacity of the controllers to select priorities, manage their cognitive resources, and regulate their own performance. We review research on strategies employed by controllers to minimize the control activity and information-processing requirements of control tasks. Controller workload will not be effectively modeled until controllers' strategies for regulating the cognitive impact of task demand have been modeled. Actual and potential applications of our conclusions include a reorientation of workload modeling in complex work systems to capture the dynamic and adaptive nature of the operator's work. Models based around workload regulation may be more useful in helping management organizations adapt to future control regimens in complex work systems.

Cardiovascular Responses to Workload and Cold-and-Hypoxic Exposure in Student Air Traffic Controllers

Student air traffic (AT) controllers were examined to investigate cardiovascular responses to job-specific workload in the air traffic control simulator and to cold-and-hypoxic exposure (CHE). Activation of the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) during work was an unfavorable factor, yet the CHE-induced increase in parasympathetic activation caused functional improvement. Highly reactive subjects with quick CHE-induced responses (l < 10 s) demonstrated a low performance and a higher PNS activation during work. Reactive subjects (10 < l < 32 s) demonstrated a higher performance, and it took them less time to recover. The CHE-induced response may be regarded as a criterion for assessing individual cardiovascular responses to job-specific workload, which may be used for preparing recommendations on a subject’s suitability for AT control work.

Prospective memory in dynamic environments: Effects of load, delay, and phonological rehearsal

A new paradigm was developed to examine prospective memory performance in a visual-spatial task that resembles some aspects of the work of air traffic controllers. Two experiments examined the role of workload (number of aeroplanes that participants directed), delay (between receipt of prospective instructions and execution), and phonological rehearsal. High workload increased prospective memory errors but increasing delay from 1–3 or 5 minutes had no effect. Shadowing aurally presented text reduced prospective memory performance, presumably because it prevented verbal rehearsal of the prospective instructions. However, performance on the foreground task of directing aeroplanes to routine destinations was affected only by workload and not by opportunity for rehearsal. Our results suggest that ability to maintain performance on a routine foreground task while performing a secondary task - perhaps analogous to conversation - does not predict ability to retrieve a prospective intention to deviate from the routine.

The Contribution of Task Performance and Contextual Performance to Effectiveness: Investigating the Role of Situational Constraints

Task performance and contextual performance are two distinct dimensions of behaviour at work that can contribute independently to effectiveness outcomes for organisations. Contextual performance is important because it represents a type of behaviour that is largely under the motivational control of individuals. Little research has addressed how the opportunity to engage in contextual behaviours might be constrained by situational demands. This study examined the contribution of task performance and contextual performance to effectiveness in the work of air traffic controllers. As predicted, task difficulty moderated the relationship between contextual performance and effectiveness. The results demonstrate that contextual performance does contribute to effectiveness in technical domains, such as air traffic control, and highlight the importance of assessing situational factors when assessing performance and effectiveness.

Structured task analysis in complex domains

This paper describes the application of MUSE, a human factors structured design method, to the design of systems supporting the work of air traffic controllers at European airport control towers. The paper illustrates the derivation of a generalized task model starting from the analyses performed at four airports and the construction of the composite task model of the future system. Other important concerns of the work are the harmonization of the different tools in the airport control tower and the assessment of the impact of these tools on the human operators. The potentialities and limitations of applying the method are discussed in particular with respect to the complexity of the domain and the nonstandard features of the air traffic control as a MUSE application. Indeed, air traffic management is widely acknowledged as a complex domain to design for, and the documented application of human factors structured methods to design are all referred to the modelling of worksystems (as opposed to working positions or workstations) with a single operator. In the present application one has multiple operators and multiple design goals (design, harmonization, assessment). The work presented is a contribution to the extension and better definition of structured methods and their applicability to the analysis of complex domains.

Flexible architectures for CSCW system support

Despite the widespread attention CSCW has received from researchers and product developers there have been very few examples of successful cooperative applications. This lack of success can be attributed in part to the lack of principles we have for CSCW system development. Identification of such principles requires a better understanding of the core functionality required to support group work. My own belief is that tools which allow developers to experiment with different strategies to support cooperation, such as alternative approaches to information sharing and presentation, update propagation, synchronisation and so on, would contribute significantly to this understanding. As such I advocate an approach to the development of cooperative systems based on prototyping, and I see this as complementary to other work focusing on discovering and articulating social interaction in order to better inform cooperative system development.Cooperative applications place novel requirements on supporting architectures, over and above those of more traditional multi-user systems. One such requirement is the need for a high degree of flexibility, necessary to support different end-users, engaged in different tasks and often adopting different methods of working. This requirement for flexibility is emphasised if we consider toolkits and environments intended to support experimentation with different strategies for managing and promoting cooperative interaction.In this brief exposition I will attempt to support my position which is based on the need for experimental prototyping of cooperative systems, and justify the claim that this prototyping requires more flexible software architectures. My thinking in this area to date has been shaped largely by experiences gained in developing the MEAD multi-user interface prototyping environment at Lancaster University. Although the MEAD system proved useful for prototyping user interfaces to support the cooperative work of air traffic controllers, it is limited in the range of cooperative interaction which can be supported. In this respect I believe MEAD is similar to most other platforms supporting development of cooperative systems.

TRACON Aircraft Arrival Planning and Optimization through Spatial Constraint Satisfaction

A new aircraft arrival planning and optimization algorithm has been incorporated into the final approach spacing tool (FAST) in the center–terminal radar approach control (TRACON) automation system (CTAS) developed at NASA–Ames Research Center. FAST simulations were conducted over 2 years involving full-proficiency, level five air traffic controllers from the Dallas–Fort Worth (DFW) TRACON. From these simulations an algorithm, called spatial constraint satisfaction, was designed and coded, underwent testing, and soon will begin field evaluation at the DFW and Denver International airport facilities. The new design was motivated by the realization that the generation of efficient and conflict free aircraft arrival plans at the run-way does not guarantee an operationally acceptable arrival plan upstream from the runway, and that information encompassing the entire arrival airspace must be used to create an acceptable aircraft arrival plan. The new design includes functions available previously, but additionally includes necessary representations of controller preferences, operationally required amounts of extra separation, and integrates procedures for aircraft conflict resolution. As a result, the spatial constraint satisfaction algorithm produces an aircraft arrival plan that is more acceptable in terms of TRACON procedures and air traffic controller work load. This article discusses the current air traffic control arrival planning procedures, previous relevant work in FAST, the design of the spatial constraint satisfaction algorithm, and a description of recent evaluations of the algorithm. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Human Machine Interfaces for Air Traffic Control

The SWIFT project, CEC EURET 1.5. is investigating specifications for future air traffic controller working positions (CWP). As part of this work, between January 1993 and February 1994 a number of experiments were conducted using practising air traffic controllers from six European countries to evaluate proposed CWP human machine interfaces. These experiments used four different testbeds and covered oceanic, en-route and terminal area operations. The en-route experiments were conducted with full control suites whereas the oceanic and terminal area investigations used mainly rapid prototyping tools.