Air Kerma Rate Research Articles

A rapid noninvasive characterization of CT x-ray sources.

The aim of this study is to generate spatially varying half value layers (HVLs) that can be used to construct virtual equivalent source models of computed tomography (CT) x-ray sources for use in Monte Carlo CT dose computations. To measure the spatially varying HVLs, the authors combined a cylindrical HVL measurement technique with the characterization of bowtie filter relative attenuation (COBRA) geometry. An apparatus given the name "HVL Jig" was fabricated to accurately position a real-time dosimeter off-isocenter while surrounded by concentric cylindrical aluminum filters (CAFs). In this geometry, each projection of the rotating x-ray tube is filtered by an identical amount of high-purity (type 1100 H-14) aluminum while the stationary radiation dose probe records an air kerma rate versus time waveform. The CAFs were progressively nested to acquire exposure data at increasing filtrations to calculate the HVL. Using this dose waveform and known setup geometry, each timestamp was related to its corresponding fan angle. Data were acquired using axial CT protocols (i.e., rotating tube and stationary patient table) at energies of 80, 100, and 120 kVp on a single CT scanner. These measurements were validated against the more laborious conventional step-and-shoot approach (stationary x-ray tube). At each energy, HVL data points from the COBRA-cylinder technique were fit to a trendline and compared with the conventional approach. The average relative difference in HVL between the two techniques was 1.3%. There was a systematic overestimation in HVL due to scatter contamination. The described method is a novel, rapid, accurate, and noninvasive approach that allows one to acquire the spatially varying fluence and HVL data using a single experimental setup in a minimum of three scans. These measurements can be used to characterize the CT beam in terms of the angle-dependent fluence and energy spectra along the bowtie filter direction, which can serve as input for accurate CT dose computations.

Terrestrial gamma radiation baseline mapping using ultra low density sampling methods

Baseline terrestrial gamma radiation maps are indispensable for providing basic reference information that may be used in assessing the impact of a radiation related incident, performing epidemiological studies, remediating land contaminated with radioactive materials, assessment of land use applications and resource prospectivity. For a large land mass, such as Queensland, Australia (over 1.7 million km2), it is prohibitively expensive and practically difficult to undertake detailed in-situ radiometric surveys of this scale. It is proposed that an existing, ultra-low density sampling program already undertaken for the purpose of a nationwide soil survey project be utilised to develop a baseline terrestrial gamma radiation map. Geoelement data derived from the National Geochemistry Survey of Australia (NGSA) was used to construct a baseline terrestrial gamma air kerma rate map, delineated by major drainage catchments, for Queensland. Three drainage catchments (sampled at the catchment outlet) spanning low, medium and high radioelement concentrations were selected for validation of the methodology using radiometric techniques including in-situ measurements and soil sampling for high resolution gamma spectrometry, and comparative non-radiometric analysis. A Queensland mean terrestrial air kerma rate, as calculated from the NGSA outlet sediment uranium, thorium and potassium concentrations, of 49 ± 69 nGy h−1 (n = 311, 3σ 99% confidence level) is proposed as being suitable for use as a generic terrestrial air kerma rate background range. Validation results indicate that catchment outlet measurements are representative of the range of results obtained across the catchment and that the NGSA geoelement data is suitable for calculation and mapping of terrestrial air kerma rate.

Optimization of dose and image quality of paediatric cardiac catheterization procedure

The purpose of this study is to quantify the quality of the available imaging modes for various iodine-based contrast agent concentration in paediatric cardiology. The figure of merit (FOM) was defined as the squared signal to noise ratio divided by a patient dose related parameter. An in house constructed phantom simulated a series of vessel segments with iodine concentrations from 10% or 30 mg/cc to 16% or 48 mg/cc of iodine in a blood plasma solution, all within the dimensional constraints of a paediatric patient. The phantom also used test inserts of tin (Sn). Measurements of Entrance Surface Air Kerma (ESAK) and exit dose rate were performed along with calculations of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of all the objects. A first result showed that it was favourable to employ low dose fluoroscopy mode and lower frame rate modes in cine acquisition if dynamic information is not critical. Normal fluoroscopy dose mode provided a considerably higher dose level (in comparison to low dose mode) with only a slight improvement in SNR. Higher frame rate cine modes should be used however when the clinical situation dictates so. This work also found that tin should not be intended as iodine replacement material for research purposes due to the mismatching SNR, particularly on small vessel sizes.

TH-AB-201-07: Reducing Fluoroscopy Operator Dose by Placing Lead Aprons On the Patient: Does It Live Up to the Hype?

Purpose: Staff radiation exposure during interventional fluoroscopy procedures is an ongoing concern. Recent studies tout reduced radiation exposure to fluoroscopy operators through the use of lead-equivalent shielding placed on the surface of the patient, claiming dose reductions of up to 75%. We sought to validate this claim when lead-equivalent shielding is wrapped around the patient's lower abdomen and upper legs during kyphoplasty. Methods: An anthropomorphic torso phantom was placed on the interventional table. The X-ray tube, detector, and table height were adjusted by a musculoskeletal radiologist who routinely performs kyphoplasty procedures. Air kerma rate (AKR) was measured using a survey meter appropriate for low-energy scattered X-rays (Unfors RaySafe) with different combinations of shielding placed on the phantom and/or in front of the survey meter. Shielding placed in front of the survey meter simulated the protective effect of an operator's own lead apron. Measurements were made at various angles and distances around the phantom; fluoroscopic acquisition parameters were constant for all measurements. Results: 1) Wrapped shielding on the phantom reduced AKR at the meter over a very limited angle — when the wrapped shielding was directly between the phantom and the survey meter (87% AKR reduction).2) No statistically significant difference in AKR was observed when the wrapped shielding was not directly between the phantom and the survey meter (p=0.97) .3) Shielding placed in front of the survey meter, representing protection of an operator's apron, reduced measured AKR by over 90% at all angles.4) Wrapped shielding did not provide additional dose savings when shielding was also placed in front of the survey meter. Conclusion: The use of wrapped shielding would not further reduce radiation exposure to an operator who is wearing a lead apron. Claims that wrapped shielding reduces staff dose may be vastly overstating the benefit to fluoroscopy operators.

SU‐E‐P‐15: Technique Factor Modulation and Reference Plane Air Kerma Rates in Response to Simulated Patient Thickness Variations for a Sample of Current Generation Fluoroscopes

Purpose:To evaluate and compare approaches to technique factor modulation and air kerma rates in response to simulated patient thickness variations for four state‐of‐the‐art and one previous‐generation interventional fluoroscopes.Methods:A polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) phantom was used as a tissue surrogate for the purposes of determining fluoroscopic reference plane air kerma rates, kVp, mA, and spectral filtration over a wide range of simulated tissue thicknesses. Data were acquired for each fluoroscopic and acquisition dose curve within a default abdomen or body imaging protocol.Results:The data obtained indicated vendor‐ and model‐specific variations in the approach to technique factor modulation and reference plane air kerma rates across a range of tissue thicknesses. Some vendors have made hardware advances increasing the radiation output capabilities of their fluoroscopes; this was evident in the acquisition air kerma rates. However, in the imaging protocol evaluated, all of the state‐of‐the‐art systems had relatively low air kerma rates in the fluoroscopic low‐dose imaging mode as compared to the previous‐generation unit. Each of the newest‐generation systems also employ copper filtration in the selected protocol in the acquisition mode of imaging; this is a substantial benefit, reducing the skin entrance dose to the patient in the highest dose‐rate mode of fluoroscope operation.Conclusion:Understanding how fluoroscopic technique factors are modulated provides insight into the vendor‐specific image acquisition approach and provides opportunities to optimize the imaging protocols for clinical practice. The enhanced radiation output capabilities of some of the fluoroscopes may, under specific conditions, may be beneficial; however, these higher output capabilities also have the potential to lead to unnecessarily high dose rates. Therefore, all parties involved in imaging, including the clinical team, medical physicists, and imaging vendors, must work together to ensure that adequate but not excessive radiation doses are used.

Establishment of 6- to 7-MeV high-energy gamma-ray calibration fields produced using the 4-MV Van de Graaff accelerator at the Facility of Radiation Standards, Japan Atomic Energy Agency.

A 6- to 7-MeV high-energy gamma-ray field, produced by the nuclear reaction of (19)F(p, αγ)(16)O, has been established at the Facility of Radiation Standards (FRS) in Japan Atomic Energy Agency for calibration purposes. Basic dosimetric quantities (i.e. averaged gamma-ray energy, air-kerma-to-dose equivalent conversion coefficients and air kerma rates at the point of test) have been precisely determined through a series of measurements using the NaI(Tl) spectrometer and an ionisation chamber coupled with an appropriate build-up material. The measurements obtained comply with values recommended by the International Organization for Standardization for an 'R-F field'. The neutron contamination component for the field has also been measured by means of a conventional neutron dose equivalent meter (the so-called neutron rem-counter) and determined to be ∼ 0.5 % of the total dose equivalent.

Evaluation of a plane-parallel ionization chamber for low-energy radiotherapy beams

A plane-parallel ionization chamber, with a sensitive volume of 6.3 cm 3 , developed at the Calibration Laboratory of IPEN (LCI), was utilized to verify the possibility of its application in low-energy X-ray beam qualities for radiotherapy (T-qualities). This homemade ion chamber was manufactured using polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) coated with graphite, and co-axial cables. In order to evaluate the performance of this ionization chamber, some characterization tests were performed: short- and medium-term stability, leakage current, saturation, ion collection efficiency, polarity effect and linearity of response. The maximum value obtained in the short-term stability test was 0.2%, in accordance with the limit value of 0.3% provided by the IEC 60731 standard. The saturation curve was obtained varying the applied voltage from -400 V to +400 V, in steps of 50 V, using the charge collecting time of 20 s. From the saturation curve two other characteristics were analyzed: the polarity effect and the ion collection efficiency, with results within the international recommendations. The leakage current of the ionization chamber was measured in time intervals of 20 minutes, before and after its irradiations, and all the results obtained were in agreement with the IEC 60731 standard. The linearity of response was verified utilizing the T-50(b) radiation quality, and the ionization chamber was exposed to different air kerma rates. The response of the ionization chamber presented a linear behavior. Therefore, all results were considered satisfactory, within international recommendations, indicating that this homemade ionization chamber presents potential routine use in dosimetry of low-energy radiotherapy beams.

Development and characterization of a new graphite ionization chamber for dosimetry of 60Co beams

Ionization chambers are the most employed dosimeters for precise measurements, as those required in radiotherapy. In this work, a new graphite ionization chamber was developed and characterized in order to compose a primary standard system for the beam dosimetry of the 60 Co sources. This dosimeter is a cylindrical type ionization chamber, with walls and collecting electrode made of high-purity graphite, and the insulators and stem made of Teflon ® . The walls are 3.0 mm thick, and it has a sensitive volume of 1.40 cm 3 . The characterization was divided in two steps: experimental and Monte Carlo evaluations. This new dosimeter was evaluated in relation to its saturation curve, ion collection efficiency, polarity effect, short- and medium-term stabilities, leakage current, stabilization time, linearity of response and angular dependence. All results presented values within the established limits. The second part of the characterization process involved the determination of the correction factors, obtained by Monte Carlo simulations. Comparing these correction factors values with those from other primary standard laboratories, the highest differences were those for the wall and stem correction factors. The air kerma rate of the 60 Co source was determined with this new dosimeter and with the IPEN standard system, presenting a difference of 1.7%. These results indicate that this new dosimeter may be used as a primary standard system for 60 Co gamma beams.

Estimation of external dose by car-borne survey in Kerala, India.

A car-borne survey was carried out in Kerala, India to estimate external dose. Measurements were made with a 3-in × 3-in NaI(Tl) scintillation spectrometer from September 23 to 27, 2013. The routes were selected from 12 Panchayats in Karunagappally Taluk which were classified into high level, mid-level and low level high background radiation (HBR) areas. A heterogeneous distribution of air kerma rates was seen in the dose rate distribution map. The maximum air kerma rate, 2.1 μGy/h, was observed on a beach sand surface. 232Th activity concentration for the beach sand was higher than that for soil and grass surfaces, and the range of activity concentration was estimated to be 0.7–2.3 kBq/kg. The contribution of 232Th to air kerma rate was over 70% at the measurement points with values larger than 0.34 μGy/h. The maximum value of the annual effective dose in Karunagappally Taluk was observed around coastal areas, and it was estimated to be 13 mSv/y. More than 30% of all the annual effective doses obtained in this survey exceeded 1 mSv/y.

Implications in medical imaging of the new ICRP thresholds for tissue reactions.

The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) statement on tissue reactions, issued by the Commission in April 2011, reviewed epidemiological evidence and suggested that there are some tissue reactions where threshold doses are or may be lower than those previously considered. For the lens of the eye, the threshold is now considered to be 0.5 Gy. The absorbed dose threshold for circulatory disease in the heart and brain may be as low as 0.5 Gy. These values can be reached in some patients during interventional cardiology or neuroradiology procedures. They may also be of concern for repeated computed tomography examinations of the head. The new thresholds should be considered in optimisation strategies for clinical procedures, especially in patients likely to require repeated interventions. The new dose thresholds also affect occupational protection for operators and staff. Some operators do not protect their eyes or their brain adequately. After several years of work without proper protection, the absorbed doses to the lens of the eye and the brain of staff can exceed 0.5 Gy. More research is needed to understand the biological effects of cumulative incident air kerma and the instantaneous air kerma rates currently used in medical imaging. The new thresholds, and the need for specific occupational dosimetry related to lens doses, should be considered in radiation protection programmes, and should be included in the education and training of professionals involved in fluoroscopy guided procedures and computed tomography.

Source geometry factors for HDR 192Ir brachytherapy secondary standard well-type ionization chamber calibrations

Well-type ionization chambers are used for measuring the source strength of radioactive brachytherapy sources before clinical use. Initially, the well chambers are calibrated against a suitable national standard. For high dose rate (HDR) 192Ir, this calibration is usually a two-step process. Firstly, the calibration source is traceably calibrated against an air kerma primary standard in terms of either reference air kerma rate or air kerma strength. The calibrated 192Ir source is then used to calibrate the secondary standard well-type ionization chamber.Calibration laboratories are usually only equipped with one type of HDR 192Ir source. If the clinical source type is different from that used for the calibration of the well chamber at the standards laboratory, a source geometry factor, ksg, is required to correct the calibration coefficient for any change of the well chamber response due to geometric differences between the sources.In this work we present source geometry factors for six different HDR 192Ir brachytherapy sources which have been determined using Monte Carlo techniques for a specific ionization chamber, the Standard Imaging HDR 1000 Plus well chamber with a type 70010 HDR iridium source holder. The calculated correction factors were normalized to the old and new type of calibration source used at the National Physical Laboratory. With the old Nucletron microSelectron-v1 (classic) HDR 192Ir calibration source, ksg was found to be in the range 0.983 to 0.999 and with the new Isodose Control HDR 192Ir Flexisource ksg was found to be in the range 0.987 to 1.004 with a relative uncertainty of 0.4% (k = 2). Source geometry factors for different combinations of calibration sources, clinical sources, well chambers and associated source holders, can be calculated with the formalism discussed in this paper.

A modified dose calculation formalism for electronic brachytherapy sources.

To propose a modification of the current dose calculation formalism introduced in the Task Group No. 43 Report (TG-43) to accommodate an air-kerma rate standard for electronic brachytherapy sources as an alternative to an air-kerma strength standard. Electronic brachytherapy sources are miniature x-ray tubes emitting low energies with high-dose-rates. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has introduced a new primary air-kerma rate standard for one of these sources, in contrast to air-kerma strength. A modification of the TG-43 protocol for calculation of dose-rate distributions around electronic brachytherapy sources including sources in an applicator is presented. It cannot be assumed that the perturbations from sources in an applicator are negligible, and thus, the applicator is incorporated in the formalism. The modified protocol mimics the fundamental methodology of the original TG-43 formalism, but now incorporates the new NIST-traceable source strength metric of air-kerma rate at 50cm and introduces a new subscript, i, to denote the presence of an applicator used in treatment delivery. Applications of electronic brachytherapy sources for surface brachytherapy are not addressed in this Technical Note since they are well documented in other publications. A modification of the AAPM TG-43 protocol has been developed to accommodate an air-kerma rate standard for electronic brachytherapy sources as an alternative to an air-kerma strength standard. The modified TG-43 formalism allows dose calculations to be performed using a new NIST-traceable source strength metric and introduces the concept of applicator-specific formalism parameters denoted with subscript, i.

Brachytherapy source calibration, reviews, and consistency of192Ir high-dose rate afterloading sources supplied over the period of 10 years: A retrospective analysis

Measurement and verification of strength of monomodal high-dose rate (mHDR)192 Ir source supplied by the vendor is a major part of quality assurance program. Reference air kerma rate (RAKR) or air kerma strength (AKS) is the recommended quantity to specify the strength of gamma emitting brachytherapy sources. Physicist in our institution performed the source calibration as soon as each 192 Ir new source was loaded on the mHDR afterloading machine. The AKS accurately measured using a physikalisch technische werkstatten (PTW) re-entrant chamber-electrometer system in a scatter-free geometry was used to compute the air kerma rate (AKR) at one-meter distance in the air. To ensure accurate dose delivery to brachytherapy patients, measured AKS or RAKR should be entered correctly in both HDR treatment console station (TCS) as well as treatment planning system (TPS) associated with it. The clinical outcome mainly depends not only on the accuracy of the source strength measurement in the hospital but also on the correct source strength entered into both TCS and TPS software. A retrospective study on 22 mHDR V2 sources supplied by the vendor for the period of 10 years was taken up to access the accuracy of source strength supplied to the Radiotherapy department. The results are analyzed and reported. The accuracy in measured RAKR of all 22 sources supplied by vendor was well within the tolerance limits set by the national regulatory body and international recommendations. The deviations observed between measured RAKR versus manufacturer's quoted RAKR were in the range from −1.71% to +1.15%. In conclusion, the measured RAKR have good agreement with vendor quoted RAKR values.

Comparison of air kerma area product and air kerma meter calibrations for X-ray radiation qualities used in diagnostic radiology

The EURAMET #1177 project, identified as EURAMET RI(I) - S9 comparison, was the first EURAMET wide scale supplementary comparison in the field of diagnostic radiology for air kerma area product, PKA, and air kerma, K. It was conducted with the goal of testing the measurement and calibration capabilities for PKA and K, as well as of supporting the relevant CMCs of the participating laboratories.Two commercial KAP meters and an ionization chamber were selected as transfer instruments and circulated between the 22 European participants. The measurements were performed from April 2011 until July 2012.The stability and the performance of the transfer instruments were tested by the pilot laboratory (IRCL/GAEC-EIM) and few other laboratories as well. The test results revealed that the energy (radiation quality), Q, irradiation area, A, and air kerma rate, K̇ dependences of response of the transfer KAP meters influence the comparison of the results when different measurement conditions were pertained and therefore, appropriate correction factors were obtained and applied to the reported calibration results of the laboratories, when necessary.The comparison reference values (CRVs) for each instrument were determined as the weighted mean of the calibration coefficients of the three participating primary laboratories. The relative standard uncertainty of the CRVs were in the range of (0.4 - 1.6)% depending on the transfer instruments and beam qualities. The comparison result as the ratio of the corrected calibration coefficient of participant and the respective CRV, and its uncertainty were calculated for all beam qualities and transfer instruments. The informative degrees of equivalence (DoE) were calculated for the refrence RQR 5 beam quality. In case of air kema area product measurements the results for the RADCAL PDC KAP meter were used.The 216 KAP meter calibration results of the two different transfer instruments in terms of air kerma area product were consistent within 5% except 40 results of 8 participants.The 103 air kerma calibration results were consistent within 1.7%, except 10 results of 4 participants.Main textTo reach the main text of this paper, click on Final Report. Note that this text is that which appears in Appendix B of the BIPM key comparison database kcdb.bipm.org/.The final report has been peer-reviewed and approved for publication by the CCRI, according to the provisions of the CIPM Mutual Recognition Arrangement (CIPM MRA).

Comparison BIPM.RI(I)-K8 of high dose-rate Ir-192 brachytherapy standards for reference air kerma rate of the NRC and the BIPM

An indirect comparison of the standards for reference air kerma rate for 192Ir high dose rate (HDR) brachytherapy sources of the National Research Council (NRC), Canada, and of the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) was carried out at the NRC in August 2014. The comparison result, based on the calibration coefficients for a transfer standard and expressed as a ratio of the NRC and the BIPM standards for reference air kerma rate, is 0.9966 with a combined standard uncertainty of 0.0050.Main text.To reach the main text of this paper, click on Final Report. Note that this text is that which appears in Appendix B of the BIPM key comparison database kcdb.bipm.org/.The final report has been peer-reviewed and approved for publication by the CCRI, according to the provisions of the CIPM Mutual Recognition Arrangement (CIPM MRA).

Comparison BIPM.RI(I)-K8 of high dose-rate Ir-192 brachytherapy standards for reference air kerma rate of the PTB and the BIPM

An indirect comparison of the standards for reference air kerma rate (RAKR) for 192Ir high dose rate (HDR) brachytherapy sources of the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), Germany, and of the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) was carried out at the PTB in September 2011. The comparison result, based on the calibration coefficients for a transfer standard and expressed as a ratio of the PTB and the BIPM standards for reference air kerma rate, is 1.0003 with a combined standard uncertainty of 0.0099.Main text.To reach the main text of this paper, click on Final Report. Note that this text is that which appears in Appendix B of the BIPM key comparison database kcdb.bipm.org/.The final report has been peer-reviewed and approved for publication by the CCRI, according to the provisions of the CIPM Mutual Recognition Arrangement (CIPM MRA).

The Metrology of a Rastered Spot of X Rays used in Security Screening.

In recent times, ionizing radiation has been used around the world to screen persons for non-medical purposes, namely to detect bulk explosives or other contraband hidden on the body including materials not registered by metal detectors. In contrast to conventional transmission or projection imaging, backscatter and forward-scatter systems employ a “flying spot” of x rays and large-area detectors. A small spot is rastered across an individual and the Compton scatter signal collected by these detectors is quickly integrated and assigned to a pixel value in an image corresponding to the transient location of the small flying spot. These systems have been controversial due in part to possible radiation health risks, and lack of independent and accurate measurements of radiation exposures to the subjects, bystanders, and operators of such systems. In this paper we will outline the techniques and instrumentation used at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) to accurately determine the incident air kerma from a swept beam of x rays. We discuss in detail the response of a large-area free-air ionization chamber under the unusual temporal and spatial radiation fields delivered by commercial scanning systems and report typical values for air kerma levels as well as estimates of air kerma rates.

Depth profiles of radioactive cesium in soil using a scraper plate over a wide area surrounding the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant, Japan

During the Fukushima Dai-ichi Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) accident, radioactive cesium was released in the environment and deposited on the soils. Depth profiles of radioactive cesium in contaminated soils provide useful information not only for radiation protection and decontamination operations but also for geoscience and radioecology studies. Soil samples were collected using a scraper plate three times between December 2011 and December 2012 at 84 or 85 locations within a 100-km radius of the Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP. In most of the obtained radioactive cesium depth profiles, it was possible to fit the concentration to a function of mass depth as either an exponential or hyperbolic secant function. By using those functions, following three parameters were estimated: (i) relaxation mass depth β (g cm−2), (ii) effective relaxation mass depth βeff (g cm−2), which is defined for a hyperbolic secant function as the relaxation mass depth of an equivalent exponential function giving the same air kerma rate at 1 m above the ground as the inventory, and (iii) 1/10 depth L1/10 (cm), at which the soil contains 90% of the inventory. The average β value (wet weight) including ones by hyperbolic secant function in December 2012, was 1.29 times higher than that in December 2011. In fact, it was observed that depth profiles at some study sites deviated from the typical exponential distributions over time. These results indicate the gradual downward migration of radioactive cesium in the soils. The L1/10 values in December 2012 were summarized and presented on a map surrounding the Fukushima Dai-ichi NPP, and the average value of L1/10 was 3.01 cm (n = 82) at this time. It was found that radioactive cesium remained within 5 cm of the ground surface at most study sites (71 sites). The sech function can also be used to estimate the downward migration rate V (kg m−2 y−1). The V values in December 2012 (n = 25) were in good agreement with those found by a realistic approach using a diffusion and migration model. Almost all values ranged between 1.7 and 9.6 kg m−2 y−1 in this study.

Nuclear medicine practices in the 1950s through the mid-1970s and occupational radiation doses to technologists from diagnostic radioisotope procedures.

Data on occupational radiation exposure from nuclear medicine procedures for the time period of the 1950s through the 1970s is important for retrospective health risk studies of medical personnel who conducted those activities. However, limited information is available on occupational exposure received by physicians and technologists who performed nuclear medicine procedures during those years. To better understand and characterize historical radiation exposures to technologists, the authors collected information on nuclear medicine practices in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. To collect historical data needed to reconstruct doses to technologists, a focus group interview was held with experts who began using radioisotopes in medicine in the 1950s and the 1960s. Typical protocols and descriptions of clinical practices of diagnostic radioisotope procedures were defined by the focus group and were used to estimate occupational doses received by personnel, per nuclear medicine procedure, conducted in the 1950s to 1960s using radiopharmaceuticals available at that time. The radionuclide activities in the organs of the reference patient were calculated using the biokinetic models described in ICRP Publication 53. Air kerma rates as a function of distance from a reference patient were calculated by Monte Carlo radiation transport calculations using a hybrid computational phantom. Estimates of occupational doses to nuclear medicine technologists per procedure were found to vary from less than 0.01 μSv (thyroid scan with 1.85 MBq of administered I-iodide) to 0.4 μSv (brain scan with 26 MBq of Hg-chlormerodin). Occupational doses for the same diagnostic procedures starting in the mid-1960s but using Tc were also estimated. The doses estimated in this study show that the introduction of Tc resulted in an increase in occupational doses per procedure.

Changes of ambient gamma-ray dose rate in Katsushika Ward, metropolitan Tokyo before and after the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident

Katsushika Ward in the eastern part of metropolitan Tokyo was the Tokyo area with the highest deposition of artificial radionuclides after the nuclear accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant. A car-borne survey of the air kerma rate was conducted for all of the ward and the results were compared with measurements done in 2005. The mean air kerma rate in 2014 was 59 ± 12 nGy h−1 and that was 50 % higher than the rate in 2005 (p < 0.01). Additionally, the environmental half-life was estimated to be 1.9 years from the transition of ambient equivalent dose rate after the accident for data published by the Katsushika Ward Office.