Air Defense System Research Articles

Partitioning the Expected Value of Countermeasures with an Application to Terrorism

Benefit–cost analyses are critical to support U.S. agencies’ programmatic decision making. These analyses are particularly challenging when one of the benefits is adversary deterrence. This paper presents a framework for calculating the value of deterrence related to countermeasures implemented to mitigate an attack by an adaptive adversary. We offer an approach for partitioning the benefit of countermeasures into three components: (1) threat reduction (deterrence), (2) vulnerability reduction, and (3) consequence mitigation. The benefit of a countermeasure is measured by the expected value of countermeasure implementation (EVCI) attributable to a specific countermeasure. It is based on the concept of expected value of imperfect control, defined as the difference in the expected values of alternatives with and without countermeasures. The EVCI represents all the benefits of implementing the countermeasure and is derived from three sources: (1) changes in attack probability (threat reduction from deterrence), (2) changes in detection probability (vulnerability reduction), and (3) changes in the distribution of attack outcomes (consequence mitigation). We partition the EVCI and estimate the portion attributable to each of these three sources to quantify the unique benefit of each. We provide two applications of the partitioning methodology using examples from the published literature that examine countermeasures designed to protect commercial aircraft against man-portable air defense systems. The proposed framework provides an approach for explicitly accounting separately for deterrence, vulnerability reduction, and consequence mitigation in benefit–cost analyses. It provides quantifiable insights into how countermeasures reduce terrorism risk. Funding: This material is based upon work supported by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security under [Grant Award 22STESE00001-02-00]. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. This award was made to Northeastern University and the University of Southern California is a sub-awardee. This work was also supported by the National Science Foundation [Grant 2027296] awarded to Decision Research.

The Concept of an Unmanned Aircraft with Stealth Technology to Support the Air Defense System for the Indonesian Archipelago's Capital

FPhenomenona The relocation of the new National Capital (IKN) in Indonesia creates a new geostrategic perspective. Where in the process must be prepared carefully, especially in the aspects of the defense and security system. This study aims to provide a planning analysis concept for Unmanned Aircraft (PTTA) with stealth technology in supporting air defense systems in Indonesia's new IKN area. The research method used is through a qualitative approach by conducting literature studies. The results of the study revealed that the air defense system for Indonesia's new IKN is in accordance with the concept of a smart defense system, the need for a platform/air vehicle that can be used in carrying out intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance is even capable of carrying out attacks in maintaining security in the Indonesian IKN area by minimizing enemy detection. And one suitable platform is to use PTTA with stealth technology which can provide advantages in terms of flexibility, range, minimized operational risk, and the ability to carry out operations undetected by enemy defense radar sensors.

Air safety information space - genesis and present day

AbstractIn the article, the author presents the genesis and development of the air safety information space from the moment when it was needed to create the NATO Integrated Air and Missile Defense System. It synthetically presents important facts contributing to its development, describes the methods of obtaining, collecting and analyzing, and above all, the use of infor-mation on airborne objects from the beginning of World War I to the present day, also empha-sizing its practical dimension in the non-military sphere. The author identifies the air safety information space as a virtual and physical space in which information about the situation in the air and space is received, processed and transmitted. Consisting of active participants, ne-tworks, data, information and information systems, creating a specific "information environ-ment" composed of the following systems: radar reconnaissance, radio-electronic reconnais-sance, aviation management, airspace management, air defense, telecommunications, remote sensing and many others. The author sees the primary source of information as the radar re-connaissance system that provides information about the air situation and the tools for mana-ging this information. Radiolocation information managed by personnel using automated harvesting systems and its development allows for the recognition, identification and tracking of airborne apparatuses moving in the airspace. The technical and human potential of radiolo-cation reconnaissance possessed and used on a daily basis allows for a thesis that it is the basis of airspace reconnaissance and constitutes a very solid foundation in building situational awa-reness in this space. An area where assessments are made and task decisions of key importance to air safety are made.Keywords: information space, air safety, information environment, air defense, information, air object.

Enhancing Air and Missile Defense System with IoT Solution: A Conceptual Approach

Enhancing Air and Missile Defense System with IoT Solution: A Conceptual Approach

Advancing Network Securing Strategies with Network Algorithms for Integrated Air Defense System (IADS) Missile Batteries

Recently, the Integrated Air Defense System (IADS) has become vital for the defense system as the military defense system is vital for national security. Placing Integrated Air Defense System batteries among locations to protect locations assets is a crucial problem because optimal solutions are needed for interceptor missiles to intercept attacker missiles for maximizing protection of assets across locations or places. In this research, the procedures of using network algorithms along with developing several network algorithms are going to be demonstrated to develop a model for sequential development of seven network securing strategies of placing Surface to Air Missile (SAM) batteries to maximize the protection of assets across locations (based on given asset values) by generating optimal solutions through computation to destroy maximum attacker missiles by using minimum interceptor missiles with given intercept probability. This network securing strategies can be implemented not only for Integrated Air Defense System (IADS) planning but also Counter Air (CA) planning as Integrated Air Defense System (IADS) is conducted with defensive counter air supported by attack operations in offensive counter air.

JUSTIFICATION OF MODERNIZATION PATHS FOR SHORT-RANGE AIR DEFENSE MISSILE SYSTEMS OF LAND FORCES

Modern air defense systems of large, medium, short, and close range are among the most complex types of military equipment. The ability of a country to independently produce modern air defense systems is an indicator of the level of development of its defense industry. Therefore, the development, serial production, and modernization of these systems require a high level of scientific and technological advancement, as well as significant investment in research and development.
 During the full-scale invasion of Ukraine by the russian federation, both manned and unmanned aerial attack means were employed by the air and space forces. From the initial moments of the invasion, all components of the air defense encountered the need for the modernization of the existing air defense systems.
 The need for the modernization of existing air defense systems in Ukraine is justified by a comparative assessment of their tactical and technical characteristics with similar systems provided by Western partner countries within the framework of material and technical assistance. The modernization of air defense missile systems covering mechanized units will enhance the capability to detect and track targets, thereby increasing the effectiveness of the system in modern combat conditions.
 The issue of air defense system modernization has been the subject of numerous publications. These works discuss prospective directions for the development of short-range air defense systems, including the description of new technologies and materials that can be utilized to enhance the functionality and reliability of such systems. The publications focus on various methodological approaches to evaluate options for upgrading weapons and military equipment.

Optimization of Air Defense System Deployment Against Reconnaissance Drone Swarms

Due to their advantages in flexibility, scalability, survivability, and cost-effectiveness, drone swarms have been increasingly used for reconnaissance tasks and have posed great challenges to their opponents on modern battlefields. This paper studies an optimization problem for deploying air defense systems against reconnaissance drone swarms. Given a set of available air defense systems, the problem determines the location of each air defense system in a predetermined region, such that the cost for enemy drones to pass through the region would be maximized. The cost is calculated based on a counterpart drone path planning problem. To solve this adversarial problem, we first propose an exact iterative search algorithm for small-size problem instances, and then propose an evolutionary framework that uses a specific encoding-decoding scheme for large-size problem instances. We implement the evolutionary framework with six popular evolutionary algorithms. Computational experiments on a set of different test instances validate the effectiveness of our approach for defending against reconnaissance drone swarms.

Fuzzy Logic-Based Threat Assessment Application In Air Defense Systems

Fuzzy Logic-Based Threat Assessment Application In Air Defense Systems

Der Wert von Sicherheit und nationaler Verteidigung

Abstract To assess preferences for measures that strengthen security and defense as a public good, discrete choice experiments are a promising approach. For Germany, such a survey-based experiment reveals a strong preference for the installation of a European air defense system, but also for an increase in the troop size of the German military by 25% as well as the creation of a European army. For these changes, there is an aggregate willingness to pay of approximately 11.5 billion euros. Approval and willingness to pay vary by party preference. However, the reintroduction of compulsory military service is overwhelmingly rejected.

Conclusions from the use of aviation in the first half of the first year of the Ukrainian-Russian war

The aim of the article is to suggest a desirable direction in which the Polish air force, and indeed the air forces of other NATO countries, should develop so that they are better prepared for the challenges identified in the conflict in Ukraine so far. In order to achieve the aim of the research and answer the formulated research question, the collection and qualitative analysis of texts and documents, observation and interviewing took place. In order to have the ability to deter and gain air superiority during a defensive operation, the Polish air force, and air forces of other NATO countries, should have a large resource of fighter, multi-role, and fighter-bomber aircraft. An object-oriented multi-layer air defence of every military airfield needs to be organised and certain roads reconstructed as runways in the event of war. In turn, helicopter aviation units should be able to organise forward arming and refuelling points for helicopters to effectively support land forces. Attack helicopters should also have integrated fire systems that allow them to attack from a distance beyond the range of man-portable air-defence systems. All warplanes should be equipped with proven and modern systems of active and passive self-defence to make them less susceptible to enemy influence. To sum up, in light of the war in Ukraine, the article explains what aviation equipment is necessary and what actions should be taken to increase both Polish air force’s ability and other NATO air forces’ ability to perform tasks during wartime.

Adaptive fuzzy based threat evaluation method for air and missile defense systems

Threat evaluation is a vital process in air and missile defense systems. The reliable output of threat evaluation is essential in order to use sensor and weapon resources efficiently. Fuzzy rule-based system has been proven to be effective and widely used in threat evaluation decision support systems in air defense applications since it can model expert human knowledge. Creating this fuzzy rule-based system that reflects user behavior requires constructing fuzzy rules increasing exponentially with the number of fuzzy variables and the membership functions and subsequently manually tuning according to expected results. Building such a system is not only time-consuming but also difficult to adapt to changes of threat behavior in different operational contexts. In this paper, a methodology for automated generation and tuning of the fuzzy rule-based system has been proposed starting from a survey applied to air defense field experts to context-dependent near real-time adaptive tuning via interaction with the user during operation. The applicability of the proposed method is presented with numerical performance results using a survey applied to a group of air defense operators. Additionally, the effect of the context-dependent adaptive fuzzy rule-based tuning process is explored for different operational contexts.

До розроблення методології побудови систем протиповітряної та протиракетної оборони. Обґрунтування апарата дослідження

Substantiation of the research tools has been performed as a part of methodology development for the air and missile defense system. The problem under consideration is very complex due to the multifactorial nature of the research object, its qualitative variety and manifold structure, incomplete definition of the problem statement. Furthermore, the ability of modern technologies to produce different arms systems, which are capable of carrying out same class tasks, considerably increases the risk of making not the best decisions. Based on this, as well as taking into account the sharp increase in the cost of weaponry, the considered problem is classified as an optimization one that should be solved through the theory of operations research. In this theory, such task is viewed as a mathematical problem, and mathematical simulation is the basic method of research. The main types of mathematical models, their areas of application have been considered as a part of the analysis. The classification of mathematical models has been indicated according to the scale of reproduced operations, purpose, and goal orientation. Quantitative and qualitative correlation of forces has been accepted as the efficiency criterion, which determines a goal orientation of the model. The problems related to this have been shown. In particular, searching for the compromise between simplicity of the mathematical model and its adequacy to the research object is among these problems. Two of the basic approaches to principles of the military operation model construction and its assessment have been considered. The first is implemented through modeling of the combat operations. The second approach is based on the assumption that different armament types can be compared based on their contribution to the outcome of the operation, and on the possibility to assign «a weighting coefficient» named as a combat potential to each of these types. The modern level of problem solving related to this method has been shown. The reasonability of its application in the considered task, including the definition of forces correlation of the opposing parties, has been substantiated. The basic regulations of the construction concept of the required mathematical model and tools for its research have been formulated based on the analysis results: the assigned problem should be solved by analytical methods through the theory of operations research; the analytical model is the most acceptable conception of the analyzed level of the military operation; the synthesis of the model should be based on the idea of a combat potential. At the same time, it should be taken into account that the known approach to the definition of forces correlation, which uses the combat potential method, has a number of essential limitations, including the methodological ones. Therefore, within the bounds of further research, this approach requires the development both in terms of improving the reliability of the single assessment and in terms of giving the system qualities to the synthesized mathematical model. Key words: multifunctional system, mathematical model, military unit, combat potential, correlation of forces, defensive sufficiency.

Методологія вибору проектних параметрів маршових двигунів на твердому паливі. Математичне та програмне забезпечення

Substantiation of the research tools has been performed as a part of methodology development for the air and missile defense system. The problem under consideration is very complex due to the multifactorial nature of the research object, its qualitative variety and manifold structure, incomplete definition of the problem statement. Furthermore, the ability of modern technologies to produce different arms systems, which are capable of carrying out same class tasks, considerably increases the risk of making not the best decisions. Based on this, as well as taking into account the sharp increase in the cost of weaponry, the considered problem is classified as an optimization one that should be solved through the theory of operations research. In this theory, such task is viewed as a mathematical problem, and mathematical simulation is the basic method of research. The main types of mathematical models, their areas of application have been considered as a part of the analysis. The classification of mathematical models has been indicated according to the scale of reproduced operations, purpose, and goal orientation. Quantitative and qualitative correlation of forces has been accepted as the efficiency criterion, which determines a goal orientation of the model. The problems related to this have been shown. In particular, searching for the compromise between simplicity of the mathematical model and its adequacy to the research object is among these problems. Two of the basic approaches to principles of the military operation model construction and its assessment have been considered. The first is implemented through modeling of the combat operations. The second approach is based on the assumption that different armament types can be compared based on their contribution to the outcome of the operation, and on the possibility to assign «a weighting coefficient» named as a combat potential to each of these types. The modern level of problem solving related to this method has been shown. The reasonability of its application in the considered task, including the definition of forces correlation of the opposing parties, has been substantiated. The basic regulations of the construction concept of the required mathematical model and tools for its research have been formulated based on the analysis results: the assigned problem should be solved by analytical methods through the theory of operations research; the analytical model is the most acceptable conception of the analyzed level of the military operation; the synthesis of the model should be based on the idea of a combat potential. At the same time, it should be taken into account that the known approach to the definition of forces correlation, which uses the combat potential method, has a number of essential limitations, including the methodological ones. Therefore, within the bounds of further research, this approach requires the development both in terms of improving the reliability of the single assessment and in terms of giving the system qualities to the synthesized mathematical model. Key words: multifunctional system, mathematical model, military unit, combat potential, correlation of forces, defensive sufficiency.

A methodical approach to prediction of the possible scale of air adversary actions on the basis of determining the size of the needed equipment of air attack means to defect the main objects of units and military units in battle

The experience of warfare [1,2] has shown that forecasting the likely scale of actions of the air enemy is one of the urgent issues that are being resolved by the chiefs of air defense, commanders of anti-aircraft units and headquarters during the planning of air defense and the conduct of combat operations. It allows you to determine the possible options for actions of the air enemy, to build or improve the air defense system (ADS) accordingly in order to ensure its sufficient effectiveness. The practice of air defense planning shows that when using traditional methods of forecasting the actions of the air adversary [3,4], an unacceptable overestimation or underestimation of the possible scope of the use of air attack means (AAM) is obtained. The forecasting results should be objective, because even minor changes in, say, the number of cruise missiles (CM), unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) by subdivision and units significantly affect the required effectiveness of the air defense system [5]. In order to obtain more accurate results, a method of forecasting the possible scale of the air enemy’s actions is proposed by determining the size of the required AAM outfits to inflict damage on the main objects of subdivisions and military units that are taking cover in battle. The methodology can be included in the information and analytical system of ensuring decision-making processes for the creation of air defense systems of different levels of hierarchy.

DETERMINATION OF THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS AND FLIGHT CONDITIONS OF UNMANNED AIRCRAFT FOR THE CREATION OF A SIMULATION MODEL FOR OVERCOMING THE ENEMY’S AIR DEFENSE SYSTEM

The article considers the problem of modeling unmanned aerial vehicles to create a simulation model of overcoming the enemy’s air defense system. The purpose of the article is to substantiate the methodology for evaluating the characteristics of the movement of unmanned aerial vehicles during aerial reconnaissance, the essence of which is the quantitative justification of a rational variant of conducting aerial reconnaissance taking into account the capabilities of the enemy’s anti-aircraft missile complex and air defense system. Analytical dependencies reflecting the main characteristics of reconnaissance unmanned aerial vehicles are considered. In combination with the proposed simulation model of overcoming the enemy's air defense system by unmanned aerial vehicles, the specified dependencies make it possible to evaluate the effectiveness of the chosen aerial reconnaissance option and determine the necessary parameters of the movement of unmanned aerial vehicles. The above calculations are based on operations research methods.

Research on the Mode for New Quality Air Defense Weapons Integration into Air Defense System

To address the evolving problem of how to applicate the increasingly developed laser, microwave, electromagnetic rail gun and other new quality air defense weapons after they are integrated into the air defense system, this paper summarizes three development states of the new quality air defense weapons system, namely, a small amount of equipment, a large number of equipment and intelligent integration, based on the performance development of new quality air defense weapons. For the first time, the system proposes three combat modes of new quality air defense weapons, namely, “pointed mode”, “layered mode” and “networked mode”, the air raid threat and application of each mode are clarified. This will provide ideas and methods for the operational application of new air quality defense weapons at different stages of development.

An Overview of Countermeasures Against Low-altitude, Slow-speed Small UAVs

With the rapid development of air combat weapons and integrated air defense system, air raid UAVs are developing towards miniaturization and clustering, which has higher requirements for air defense weapon system and greater air defense difficulty. In view of the threat of Low-altitude, Slow-speed Small UAVs to air defense system, this paper briefly describes the basic classification of UAV, introduces the market demand of anti Low-altitude, Slow-speed Small UAVs at the present stage, summarizes the basic strategies and five Damage methods of anti Low-altitude, Slow-speed Small UAVs, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of various methods, which provides a reference for understanding the current research status and carrying out the next research work.

Development of a shooting strategy to neutralize UAV swarms based on multi-shot cooperation

Economical and efficient assault methods using drones and drone swarms severely assailed the defenders during the conflict in the Middle East. In view of the current situation, based on medium and large-caliber anti-aircraft artillery platforms, this article analyzes and calculates the advantages of using multiple anti-aircraft guns against drones, the threat of a drone colony, and the drone colony density. Additionally, this study determines the firing sequence of a drone swarm, and provides anti-aircraft gun firing position points to reduce the firing cost and increase the efficiency. This ensures the optimization of an air defense system within a short duration of time. Ammunition is an effective defense against drone swarms. The experimental results demonstrate that compared with that of the conventional methods of individually shooting the swarms, this strategy can simultaneously neutralize multiple targets, assign shooting tasks to multiple artillery guns, and can cause greater damage to a drone swarm.

Structural Model Analysis for the Laser Guided Mobile Short-Range Air Defence System

This article provides structural model analysis of characteristics of the vehicle movement during the shooting from a laser guided short-range air defence system mounted on it. Every shot causes a recoil, which significantly affects vibration of the vehicle and determines the shortest time duration between each two successive shots. The numerical simulation with MATLAB software enabled us verification of the created structural model and it facilitated the understanding of mechanical phenomena which are the most important for achieving the proper vibrational characteristics of the system. Main modes of the system movements during missile launch and their effect on the launcher and the vehicle were determined.

Radar signal waveform based on Costas and Walsh‐Hadamard codes as electronic counter‐countermeasure

AbstractBelligerent sides of current military conflicts are first and foremost counting on intelligence, air supremacy, and electromagnetic spectrum dominance. Actual concepts of conducting military operations can be characterised by the massive employment of air defence systems, radars, and electronic warfare systems. An approach is aimed to strengthen air‐defence potential by improving the resilience of pulse radar against electronic warfare threats, such as an electronic attack. To cope with the above‐mentioned situation, a radar intrapulse modulation was designed, where a combination of Costas codes and Walsh‐Hadamard codes is applied. Using a particular waveform together with the proposed model for radar signal processing results in increased resilience against an electronic attack, especially against repeater jamming methods. Furthermore, it is also possible to process radar echoes at low levels of Signal‐to‐Noise Ratio (SNR), which enhances radar electronic counter–countermeasure capability. The main scientific contribution of the paper is in the unique design of the Pulse Compression Filter for Combined Intrapulse Modulation (PCF‐CIM) and in its modelling. Based on the statistical evaluation of results, using the proposed radar waveform together with PCF‐CIM, it is possible to detect radar signals with combined intrapulse modulation in the case of SNR ≥ −14 dB with TPR ≥0.9999 and FPR ≤10−6, where SNR stands for Signal‐to‐Noise Ratio, TPR stands for True Positive Rate, and FPR stands for False Positive Rate.