Air-coupled Ultrasonic Transducers Research Articles

Experimental Study on Intermediate Layer Made of (0–3) Composite Materials for Use in Air-Coupled Ultrasonic Transducers

The (0–3) composite materials for the intermediate layer of a MHz-range air-coupled ultrasonic transducer were studied experimentally. The optimal value of the characteristic acoustic impedance for this intermediate layer was calculated using a transmission line model. The (0–3) composite materials were formed from a mixture of silicone rubber and hollow thermoplastic microspheres at various weight ratios, and their acoustic properties were measured, and compared with those of a Reuss model. The measured values of the acoustic properties of the composite materials agreed well with the theoretical estimation. The transmission and reception of an air-coupled ultrasonic waves of 1 MHz using a piezoceramic transducer fitted with the intermediate layer was demonstrated with a pulse–echo system, and the sensitivity was improved by 20 dB by using the optimal composite material.

Air-Coupled Ultrasonic Transducers Based on Cellular Polypropylene Ferroelectret Films

Analysis of the dielectric and electromechanical properties of the cellular polypropylene ferroelectret films (EMFIT) evidences their high potential for the application in the air-coupled ultrasonic transducers. Simple prototype transducers, based on the EMFIT films, were developed and their high sensitivity was proved in the air-coupled ultrasonic experiment. Amplitude and delay time scanned images of the polyethylene step wedge with holes, obtained in both pulse-echo and transmission modes, demonstrate that non-contact ultrasonic imaging with EMFIT transducers is possible.

Study on the high power air-coupled ultrasonic compound transducer

The high power air-coupled compound ultrasonic transducer in flexural vibration is studied. The transducer consists of a sandwich longitudinal piezoelectric transducer and a circular thin plate in flexural vibration. The resonance frequency equation and the equivalent circuit of a circular radiator with clamped boundary condition are derived. The resonance frequency equation and the equivalent circuit of the compound transducer are also obtained. The radiated acoustic field of the circular thin plate radiator is analyzed and the directional pattern is calculated. It can be seen that when the vibrational order of the circular thin plate in flexural vibration is increased, the radiated acoustic field becomes complex.

Spherically focused capacitive-film, air-coupled ultrasonic transducer

A spherically focused (no mirrors) capacitive-film, air-coupled ultrasonic transducer, constructed using a spherically deformed backplate and metalized polymer film, has been designed, fabricated, and its performance characterized. A 1cm diameter device has a center frequency of 805kHz and a 6dB bandwidth of 760kHz. Comparisons of field strength in the focal zone with theoretical calculations for a spherically focused piston show that the device achieves diffraction-limited focusing. The nominal focal point of 25mm lies within 0.01mm of the calculated value for this device.

空中超音波送波器の音響整合層のための粒子分散型複合材料の設計とその音響的特性

The acoustic properties of (0-3) composite materials for acoustic matching layer of MHz-range air-coupled ultrasonic transducer are studied experimentally. The composite materials are formed from a mixture of silicone rubber and hollow thermoplastic microspheres. The acoustic properties of the composite materials are measured and compared with Reuss model, which is theoretical model for elastic properties of composite materials. The measured values of velocity and characteristic acoustic impedance of the composite materials agreed well with the theoretical estimation up to 10% weight fractions of hollow thermoplastic microspheres. The optimal value of characteristic acoustic impedance for acoustic matching layer of air-coupled ultrasonic transducer was calculated using transmission line model. The acoustic matching layer having the optimal value was obtained from the composite material, for which the weight percentage of hollow thermoplastic microspheres is 5%. Transmission of air-coupled ultrasonic wave of 1 MHz using piezoceramic transducer with the acoustic matching layer is demonstrated, and the sensitivity of transmission was improved by 10 dB using the optimal composite material.

P3-47 Detection of Lamb waves in metal plate using air-coupled ultrasonic transducers in MHz range

P3-47 Detection of Lamb waves in metal plate using air-coupled ultrasonic transducers in MHz range

Submicrometer-Order Displacement Measurements Using an Air-Coupled Ultrasonic Transducer at Frequencies of 40 and 400 kHz

Noncontact air-coupled ultrasonic systems for measuring micrometer- or submicrometer-order displacements are newly constructed at frequencies of 40 and 400 kHz. The phase detection accuracy of the displacement measurements under several thousandths of ultrasonic wavelengths λ is markedly improved by the introduction of phase differences between the reference waves and the transmitting wave signal. To verify our system, the displacement of the reflector, which is translated by a high-precision mechanical stage, is measured using a single piezoelectric ceramic transducer in the reflection mode. Resolutions of displacement of better than 1 µm or 0.1 µm (λ/8500) using ultrasonic waves of 40 or 400 kHz in air, respectively, are achieved.

Simultaneous reconstruction of flow and temperature cross-sections in gases using acoustic tomography.

This paper describes the use of air-coupled ultrasonic tomography for the simultaneous measurement of flow and temperature variations in gases. Air-coupled ultrasonic transducers were used to collect through-transmission data from a heated gas jet. A transducer pair was scanned in two-dimensional sections at an angle to the jet, and travel time and amplitude data recorded along various paths in counter-propagating directions. Parallel-beam tomographic reconstruction techniques allowed images to be formed of variations in either temperature or flow velocity. Results have been obtained using heated jets, where it has been shown that it is possible to separate the two variables successfully.

New type of matching layer for air-coupled ultrasonic transducers.

This paper presents a new concept in the design of an impedance matching structure for air coupled ultrasonic transducers. A reflective layer structure is inserted between the transducer and propagation medium with a small air space. Adjusting the air space and the reflectivity of the inserted structure causes the transducer impedance to match with the impedance of the propagation medium. Two such structures were investigated as a reflector: a polymer thin film and a thick plate with many holes. Wave impedance theory was applied to these reflecting structures, and the impedance of a thin film layer at the incident surface was calculated using boundary conditions. Impedance of holed plate is calculated in a similar fashion. It was found that the calculated impedance of these structures approximately matched the impedance of the PZT air transducer (40 KHz). The acoustic pressure output was maximized by adjusting the position of the matching structure. A theoretical gain of up to 10 dB in the acoustic pressure was predicted under ideal circumstances, and the experimental observations showed a gain of 9.5 dB in the acoustic pressure for a 12 microm polyethylene film placed at a distance of approximately 0.1 mm from the transducer's surface. The increase was 9.8 dB for a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film and 9.7 dB for a 1.5 mm printed circuit board with many holes at a distance of approximately 25 microm from the transducer's surface.

Ultrasonic imaging in air using fan-beam tomography and electrostatic transducers

Air-coupled ultrasonic capacitance transducers operating at frequencies of up to 1 MHz have been employed in a fan-beam configuration for the cross-sectional tomographic imaging of temperature fields and flow fields in air, and the location of solid objects. Separate transmitter and receiver transducers were manufactured using thin polymer dielectric membranes and polished metal backplates, and used to acquire through-transmission data. The fan-beam reconstruction was developed in LabVIEW ® using a re-bin routine combined with a filtered backprojection algorithm and a difference technique to generate the cross-sectional images. The system was first used to reconstruct images showing the locations of solid objects positioned within the scanned region through interpretation of the arrival time of the transmitted ultrasound. The technique was then extended to image the temperature fields produced in air above a small heat source and the flow field produced by a nozzle connected to a regulated compressed air source. Reconstructed temperatures were within 4% of the measured background air temperature and 9% of the air temperature measured above the heat source. Reconstructed images of the flow field above a small nozzle were also presented, showing that the horizontal component of the flow velocity could be resolved using this method.

Development of a novel ribbon-based air-coupled ultrasonic transducer

A new design of air-coupled ultrasonic transducer has been developed based on the design of a ribbon microphone, using a thin metallic ribbon suspended in a strong magnetic field. A current pulse within the ribbon induces motion, generating an ultrasonic pulse. An incoming ultrasonic wave also causes the ribbon to move, hence generating a received current signal. Experiments have shown that the performance of the transducer in terms of sensitivity and bandwidth is dependent on the ribbon characteristics, magnetic field distribution and type of current drive circuit.

Lamb and SH waves generated and detected by air-coupled ultrasonic transducers in composite material plates

Electrostatic, air-coupled, ultrasonic transducers are used to generate and detect guided waves in anisotropic solid plates. Waves considered in this study are Lamb-type and SH-type, guided modes. If the plane of propagation coincides with a plane of symmetry of the material, then Lamb modes only are launched and detected by the transducers. If the plane of propagation does not coincide with a plane of symmetry of the material, then Lamb modes are still generated and detected, but guided, SH-like modes are, too. The variation of phase velocity with frequency is measured for several modes propagating in different directions along a glass–epoxy composite plate. A numerical model that takes into account the anisotropy of composite materials is developed to predict the dispersion curves (phase velocity, group velocity or wave-number versus frequency) and the displacement fields of plate waves, the plane of propagation being either a plane of symmetry or not. The experimental phase velocities are in good agreement with the predicted dispersion curves, thus showing that the forward problem concerning the propagation of plate waves in anisotropic, homogeneous, composite material plates is properly solved. The dispersion curves associated with the predicted displacement fields show that guided modes in composite plates have different behaviors depending on their direction of propagation.

Equivalent circuits and directivity patterns of air-coupled ultrasonic transducers.

Air-coupled transducers for producing ultrasonic radiation in gases are studied. The transducer consists of a circular thin plate in flexural vibration and a sandwich longitudinal electromechanical vibrator that is attached to the center of the plate. The lowest-order axially symmetric flexural vibrational mode of a circular thin plate is analyzed. The equivalent circuits of the circular plate in flexural vibration and the compound transducer are presented and the frequency equation is derived. The radiated ultrasonic field of the circular thin plate in flexural vibration is calculated and the directivity pattern is obtained theoretically. Some transducers of this type are designed according to the frequency equation, and their resonance frequencies are measured. The measured resonance frequencies are in good agreement with the theoretical results, and the calculated radiation ultrasonic field is also in good agreement with the measured results of a previous work.

MICROSCALE THERMAL RELAXATION DURING ACOUSTIC PROPAGATION IN AEROGEL AND OTHER POROUS MEDIA

The longitudinal acoustic velocity in silica aerogel is presented as a function of the interstitial gas type and pressure. This was measured using air-coupled ultrasonic transducers configured for differential pulse transit time measurements. The results are interpreted in terms of the thermal relaxation of the acoustic pulse. The microscale temperature oscillations of the gas and solid phases of the aerogel due to the acoustic pulse are not identical if the rate of heat transfer between the two phases is slow compared to the period of the acoustic oscillation. The energy transferred from the gas to the solid phase is lost to the acoustic propagation and, thus, reduces the amplitude and velocity of the acoustic wave. The gas type and pressure may provide independent variables for probing these effects in aerogel.

Monitoring of binder removal from injection molded ceramics using air-coupled ultrasound at high temperature

A pair of capacitance-type air-coupled ultrasonic transducers have been constructed that were capable of operating in air at temperatures of 500 to 600 degrees C. These devices were then used to monitor the pyrolytic removal of organic binder from injection molded silicon nitride ceramic components using air-coupled ultrasound inside a furnace at elevated temperatures. Through-thickness waveforms were obtained in the ceramic and compared with simultaneous measurements of the mass of the sample. Both the ultrasonic velocity and signal amplitudes could be used to monitor the change in mass of the injection molded ceramic, and other phenomena (such as softening and redistribution of the binder) were observed.

Ultrasonic tomographic imaging of temperature and flow fields in gases using air-coupled capacitance transducers

A pair of air-coupled ultrasonic capacitance transducers with polished metal backplates have been used to image temperature and flow fields in gases using ultrasonic tomography. Using a filtered back-projection algorithm and a difference technique, cross-sectional images of spatially variant changes in ultrasonic attenuation and slowness caused by the presence of temperature and flow fields were reconstructed. Temperature fields were produced in air by a commercial soldering iron, and the subsequent images of slowness variations used to reconstruct the air temperature at various heights above the iron. When compared to measurements made with a thermocouple, the tomographically reconstructed temperatures were found to be accurate to within 5%. The technique was also able to resolve multiple heat sources within the scan area. Attenuation and velocity images were likewise produced for flow fields created by an air-jet from a 1-mm-diam nozzle, at both 90 and 45 degrees to the scanning plane. The fact that temperature and flow fields can be measured in a gas without the need to insert any measuring devices into the image region is an advantage that may have many useful applications.

Air-coupled ultrasonic testing of metals using broadband pulses in through-transmission

A pair of air-coupled electrostatic ultrasonic transducers with polished metal backplates have been used to test metals using broadband pulses in non-contact through-transmission. A range of aluminium samples between 1.7 mm and 12.9 mm thick were successfully tested using entirely air-coupled non-contact bulk waves. Individual longitudinal reflections and mode-converted shear waves could be seen in the signals obtained through the thicker samples. The results demonstrate that it is possible to both generate and detect discrete broadband pulses in metals using air-coupled transducers, making entirely air-coupled through-thickness NDT of metals an achievable goal.

Development of a PVDF membrane hydrophone for use in air-coupled ultrasonic transducer calibration

This work describes the use of a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane hydrophone for application in air-coupled transducer calibration. A one-dimensional theoretical analysis is used to demonstrate the potential and performance of PVDF as a hydrophone material over the frequency range 100 kHz to 5 MHz included in the evaluation is the influence of deposited metallic electrode layers on the sensitivity of the material. Experimental validation over the restricted range 400 kHz to 1 MHz is provided by a coplanar 0.028 mm thick membrane hydrophone in conjunction with a custom built 1-3 piezocomposite transmitter. Calibration of the membrane hydrophone is performed by employing a standard hydrophone that has been calibrated to a primary standard in a water medium. Justification for such an approach is presented within the theoretical analysis which provides a close correlation with experimental data. The generation of Lamb waves at critical angles in the PVDF and their subsequent influence on the directional response of membrane hydrophones operating in air is also addressed. A method for partial suppression of the Lamb waves, based around perforation of the membrane (either in whole or in part), is evaluated experimentally with reasonable results.

Air-coupled ultrasonic transducers for measurement of green-state ceramics at elevated temperatures

Air-coupled ultrasonic transducers have been used to study the properties of green-state ceramic components. The work used electrostatic (capacitance) transducers. In a first set of experiments, the transducers were C-scanned over the entire area of selected disc-shaped samples to locate changes in structure that could lead to problems in the firing stage. The transducers were modified subsequently to operate at elevated temperatures for monitoring the manufacturing process, and it was shown that good sensitivity could be obtained in silicon nitride samples at temperatures in excess of 200°C. It was shown that ultrasonic velocity was related to both softening of the polymer binder and the change in weight of the samples as they were heated, the latter giving an indication of polymer burn-out rates.

Air-coupled ultrasonic NDE of bonded aluminum lap joints

This paper describes an investigation into the feasibility of using wideband air-coupled ultrasonic transducers for evaluating the integrity of bonded aluminum lap joints. Micromachined capacitance transducers are used to generate and detect ultrasonic Lamb waves in aluminum lap-joints through an intervening air layer. The transmission of Lamb waves through the bond is affected by the bond's local state, such that scanning a pair of air-transducers allows images to be produced either with the transducers on opposite sides of the plate, or on the same side. It is shown that defects in the bond-line can be detected and imaged by such a non-contract system. Confirmation of defect positions are obtained by comparing the results of the air-coupled scans to a conventional immersion ultrasonic C-scan.