Agricultural Extension Policy Research Articles

Extension workers’ capacity for outreach to crop farmers on climate change resilience and adaptation in Edo state, Nigeria

The study evaluated capacity for extension workers’ outreach to crop farmers on climate change resilience and adaptation in Edo State, Nigeria. The study specifically described socio-economic characteristics of the extension workers; described capacities for outreach by the extension workers; identified constraints to building capacities for outreach by the extension agents and identified strategies to building capacities of the extension workers. A multistage sampling technique was used to select 69 extension workers. Data for this study were obtained through the use of structured interview schedule. Descriptive statistics and factor analysis were employed in the analysis. The results showed that majority of the respondents (50.7%) were Extension Agent (EA) followed by 29.0% who were Block Extension Supervisors (BES). The result reveals that 34.8% of the extension staff to have attended between 1 to 4 conferences in the last three years. About 44.9% of the respondents participate in workshops, training, seminars for extension workers and farmers. Majority (82.6%) of the respondents identified bush burning, massive deforestation and excess use of agro-chemicals in farming as the major causes of climate change. A major constraints to building capacities for outreach by extension agents was absence of well-defined agricultural policy (3.254). Restructuring of extension agents’ education and trainings was identified as a major strategy to building the capacities of the extension workers. It is recommended that agricultural extension policies relating to climate change need to be reviewed, among others.

ADOPTION OF SORGHUM NATIONAL INTEGRATED SOLUTIONS TECHNICAL PACKAGE BY RAINFED FARMERS, GEZIRA, SUDAN

The effect of climate change on African agriculture represents a major challenge to continental agricultural development including food security, nutrition and management. In Sudan, the yield of rainfed crops is characterized by high variability in the yield due to the high variability in seasonal rainfall and does not exceed two sacs/feddan because the rainfed farmers were adopted low input rainfed agriculture as a risk management option which led to reduce in the yield per unit of land and water. The Federal Ministry of Agriculture has designed and financed a special programme for the traditional the rainfed sector of the country called Integrated Solutions Programme as the main adaptation strategy for the 2014/ 2020 growing seasons to diversify and increase production and productivity of crops cultivated in traditional rainfed areas in each State of the country such as sorghum, sesame, millet and sunflower. This programme was implemented by the Administration of Agricultural Extension and Technology Transfer in each State in collaboration with Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC) and the Agricultural Bank of Sudan. Field survey was used to collect data from 50 rainfed farmers participated in the programme and an equal number from non- participant farmers from the study area were selected (for comparison) using the simple random sampling technique. A close ended questionnaire was constructed and the personal interview technique was used to administer the questionnaire. The collected data were coded, fed to computer and statistically analyzed using (SPSS), discussed interpreted using descriptive statistics and chi-square test. The results showed that the participant farmers adopted the programme components. The majority of chi-square test results revealed no significant association between farmer`s adoption of the programme components and participation in the programme and also no significant association between farmer`s adoption of the programme components and the selected socio-economic characteristics of the respondent farmers. From this study, it can be concluded that the NISP are very effective agricultural extension policy that can be applied in the rainfed sector of the country, which will help rainfed farmers to increase their income through their participation in various activities of the programme. The study recommends that NISP should become the main national policy specially designed for the agricultural rainfed sector of the country, the needed agricultural inputs should be available at a reasonable price, the curriculum of NISP should be updated and developed regularly to solve the constraints that might face the programme, in-service training should be organized for agricultural extension officers on various aspects related to the rainfed sector, various means for conduction the programme should be available, Further agricultural extension research should be conducted

Influence of university agricultural technology extension on efficient and sustainable agriculture

Agricultural extension, as an important part of modern agriculture, can promote the scientific transformation of the traditional agricultural production model. This paper analysed the impact of university agricultural technology extension on efficient and sustainable agriculture using difference-in-differences model (DID). The results showed that university agricultural technology extension plays a facilitating role by influencing the coordinated development and green development dimensions in efficient and sustainable agriculture; there is a moderating effect of modern agricultural industrial parked in university agricultural technology extension and efficient and sustainable agriculture; there are significant differences in the impact of university agricultural technology extension on efficient and sustainable agriculture across regions and different levels of development. The findings have important implications for evaluating the effectiveness of current university agricultural extension policies and how to further promote university agricultural extension. The study also established an evaluation index system for efficient and sustainable agriculture, explored the mechanism of university agricultural extension in promoting efficient and sustainable agriculture, and enriched relevant theoretical research.

Persepsi Penyuluh Pertanian terhadap Implementasi Undang-Undang Nomor 23 Tahun 2014 di Kabupaten Lampung Timur

Law Number 23 of 2014 resulted in the management of fisheries extension agents being withdrawn to the center and forestry extension workers managing it by the provinces together with the center. This has reduced the number of agricultural extension workers in East Lampung Regency, so that it is increasingly difficult to fulfill the target of implementing one village one extension agricultural extension worker. The next implication is that the range of extension services has expanded with a total of 264 villages and a total of 6,233 farmer groups served only by 112 agricultural extension workers. Another problem is the agricultural extension policy under the local government which results in the implementation and management of agricultural extension activities encountering many obstacles. This research was conducted in East Lampung Regency. Data collection was carried out in November-December 2022. Respondents were 88 agricultural extension workers on duty in East Lampung Regency. This study used a survey method with a quantitative descriptive approach. The results showed that the perceptions of agricultural extension workers regarding the implementation of Law Number 23 of 2014 in East Lampung Regency were not good.

Indigenous crop diversity maintained despite the introduction of major global crops in an African centre of agrobiodiversity

Societal Impact StatementThe global success and expansion of a small pool of major crops, including rice, wheat and maize, risks homogenising global agriculture. Focusing on the agriculturally diverse Ethiopian Highlands, this study tested whether farm diversity tends to be lower among farmers who grow more introduced crops. Surprisingly, it was found that farmers have successfully integrated introduced crops, resulting in more diverse and heterogenous farms without negatively impacting indigenous crop diversity. This is encouraging because diverse farms, comprising indigenous agricultural systems supplemented by introduced crops, may help address global challenges such as food insecurity.Summary The global expansion of a handful of major crops risks eroding indigenous crop diversity and homogenising agroecosystems, with significant consequences for sustainable and resilient food systems. Here, we investigate the farm‐scale impact of introduced crops on indigenous agroecosystems. We surveyed 1369 subsistence farms stratified across climate gradients in the Ethiopian Highlands, a hotspot of agrobiodiversity, to characterise the richness and cultivated area of the 83 edible crops they contained. We further categorise these crops as being indigenous to Ethiopia, or introduced across three different eras. We apply non‐metric multidimensional scaling and mixed effects modelling to characterise agroecosystem composition across farms with different proportions of introduced crops. Crops from different periods do not differ significantly in frequency or abundance across farms. Among geographically matched pairs of farms, those with higher proportions of modern introduced crops had significantly higher overall crop richness. Furthermore, farms with a high proportion of modern introduced crops showed higher heterogeneity in crop composition. An analysis of socio‐economic drivers indicated that poverty is negatively associated with the cultivated area of introduced crops. In our Ethiopian case study, global patterns of major crop expansion are not necessarily associated with agrobiodiversity loss at the farm scale or higher homogeneity across indigenous agricultural systems. Importantly, socioeconomic factors may influence farmers' propensity to adopt novel species, suggesting targets for agricultural extension policies. Given the rapid climatic, economic and demographic changes impacting global food systems and the threats to food security these entail, robust indigenous agricultural systems enriched with diverse introduced crops may help maintain resilience.

Youths as recipients and providers of agriculture information – the vertical vegetable gardening case in Busia County, Kenya

The intent of this study was to assess the feasibility of engaging youths in secondary schools in disseminating agricultural information among smallholder farmers using a five-month vertical vegetable gardening technology case in Busia County, Kenya. The research employed mixed research design targeting smallholder farmers and youths in secondary schools. A sample of 132 smallholder farmers and 132 youths in their first, second, and third years of study were selected to participate in the study at the baseline survey, during the intervention, and at the closure survey. The baseline survey was used to identify gaps, followed by participatory training intervention on the mound bed, primary tower, and second wall, to create awareness about vertical vegetable gardening through young farmers' clubs, and a closure survey to assess the change caused by the intervention and the feasibility of the approach. The study used kales, black nightshade, swiss chard, capsicum and carrots as examples of vegetables suitable for vertical gardens. Data was analyzed using the Wilcoxon sign-rank test at p0.05 level of significance, thematic and descriptive analysis. The results showed that there was a significant change in access and use of vertical gardening information by smallholder farmers. At P = 0.000, 22% of the smallholder farmers appreciated the use of vertical vegetable gardening at the closure survey, compared to 1% at the baseline survey. The dissemination of information through secondary school youths allowed for multiple delivery channels, was a good technology result demonstration approach for technology replication, and had sufficient agricultural extension activity learning scope. Significant change in the level of technology acceptance offer practical implications for policy makers to support the role of youths in agricultural extension. Future studies are needed to examine suitable agricultural extension policies and strategies to increase the successful implementation of agricultural extension through secondary schools.

Analysis of the producers’ demographic and socioeconomic characteristics that impact on the access to agricultural extension services in Mozambique

In the last few decades, the agricultural extension services in Mozambique have been focused mainly on the training and strengthening of producer associations, improved technology transfer, and technical assistance. This study aimed to establish the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the producers which impact the access to agricultural extension services. In methodological terms, a logistic regression model was estimated and the variables used were provided by 2010 Agricultural and Livestock Census, also known as CAP- (Portuguese acronym for Censo Agropecuário de 2010). Results showed that despite the universal character of the agricultural extension policy, the distribution of access to these services was very uneven, in terms of variables such as gender and age of the household head, education levels, ability to read, and technology use (irrigation, fertilizers, and pesticides). This information is highly relevant to decision-making, as it can guide future improvements in the services, both in terms of coverage and of quality of the technical assistance.

Determinants of Farmers’ Level of Interaction with Agricultural Extension Agencies in Northwest Ethiopia

This research identifies critical determinants for interactions between farmers and extension agencies. Cross-sectional farm household-level data from three hundred household heads were collected between September 2019 and March 2020 and triangulated with data from workshops with farmers and extension agents. The data were analyzed using Spearman’s correlation coefficient, Kruskal–Wallis analysis of variance and the ordered probit model. Farmers’ socio-economic characteristics significantly affect their degree of interaction with extension agencies. Recognition of the determinants of the level of farmers’ interactions can inform policymakers about how to formulate and improve the effectiveness of extension programs, enhance information and knowledge dissemination and facilitate development in collaboration with local communities by focusing on a better interaction between farmers and extension agencies. The level of a farmer’s interactions is based on a systematic decision-making process. Although personal and demographic characteristics are important, farmers’ interaction levels require conducive institutional and household assets, groups/social capital and access to extension agents’ contexts. These contexts will differ by household, country and region. Therefore, extension agencies should create and design contextually appropriate strategies for substantial interactions with farmers for the dissemination of farm information. This research is original and valuable in identifying the factors associated with the level of farmers’ interactions with extension agencies in the Amhara region, Ethiopia. It also provides a new pathway for operationalizing farmer-oriented agricultural extension policies and strategies and to help agricultural policymakers formulate extension service programs.

Large-scale farms in Zambia: Locational patterns and spillovers to smallholder agriculture

The accelerated growth of large-scale farming operations in developing countries, in particular Africa, has raised concerns that smallholders may be negatively affected. Drawing on nationally representative smallholder data and a census of large-scale farms in Zambia, this study investigates spillovers from large-scale farms to smallholders. First, we conceptually discuss potential spillovers from larg-scale farms to smallholders and sources of spillover heterogeneity. Second, we analyze the large-scale farm sector and its locational pattern. Large-scale farms operate in areas with good infrastructure and market access, i.e. in proximity to smallholders. Third, we adopt a difference-in-differences approach to estimate the spillovers of large-scale farms to smallholders’ area cultivated, access to fertilizer, and maize yields. We observe that the establishment of large-scale farms has little effect on average farm sizes of smallholders. However, we find a strong shift of crop portfolios towards maize among smallholders near recently established large-scale farms to the detriment of other staple crops. We do not find any spillovers on fertilizer adoption by smallholder farmers but large positive effects on maize yields. The locational pattern suggest that large-scale farms compete with smallholders for land. In sum, it is crucial not to overestimate the development potential of large-scale farms. Instead, immediate threats to smallholders need to be addressed, in particular through securing land tenure rights. Further, the mechanisms of spillovers need to be better understood in order to design infrastructure and agricultural extension policies that can complement and reinforce positive spillovers from large-scale farms and mitigate potential negative spillovers including environmental impacts.

Review on Agricultural Extension Impacts on Food Crop Diversity and the Livelihood of Farmers in Ethiopia

Agricultural extension could be one tool in attaining the sustainable development goal related to the reduction of extreme poverty and hunger in developing countries like Ethiopia. This review aimed on agricultural extension impacts on food crop diversity and the livelihood of farmers in Ethiopia. According to this review results, agricultural extension impacts on food crop diversity are significantly affected positively and negatively with or without establishing annual joint planning, monitoring, learning, and evaluation, experience sharing through workshops, trainings and joint field visits in a cost-effective manner respectively. In addition, putting in place effective regulatory system and strategic framework for NGO’s extension services through developing extension governance structure are importantly affect agricultural extension towards of food crop diversity and also the possible explanation is that access to extension services is associated with the spread and adoption of new technologies through the provision of technical advice, credit availability, input supplies and even to the provision of market information and building the capacity of farmers, which might be directly re Cooperatives can provide specialized extension services by employing extension agents and/or contracting extension service providers to maximize their expected outputs to their members both in terms of improving the quantity and quality of their produce/ products. According to this review results, agricultural extension impacts the livelihood of farmers are affected by series of agricultural policies and strategies to nurture service provision and promote rural development, practical skills development and learning knowledge and trainings about crop production, natural resources management and animal production at different rates. Therefore, it is important for the government to focus on the awareness of the small holder farmers the way of enhancing the crop diversification and changing their own livelihood by using agricultural extension policies and strategy that is released or prepared by government or non-government organization.

Impact of Agricultural Communication Interventions on Improving Agricultural Productivity in Malawi

Agricultural communication (AGCOM) has been known to aid in disseminating research-based agricultural information among Malawian farmers. In 1958 the Malawi Government, via the Ministry of Agriculture, established the Agricultural Communications Branch (ACB) in an attempt to increase access to and adoption of scientifically-proven technologies among farmers. Moreover, in 2000 the Malawi Government started implementing an agricultural extension policy that promoted pluralistic demand-driven extension, which led to the increased availability of non-governmental organizations providing AGCOM services to farmers. However, after several decades of using different communication tools to promote new technologies, low productivity in most small holder farms remains a challenge, with limited adoption of improved technology as one of the contributing factors. In this exploratory, convergent, mixed methods study, 30 Malawian farmers and six AGCOM officers who were selected using convenient and snow ball sampling respectively participated in key informant interviews. In addition, 64 AGCOM officers who were selected using simple random sampling were involved in a survey. The findings of the study revealed that information delivered to farmers does not address farmer needs in most cases. Specifically, existing policies, source and availability of funding, and the agricultural calendar influenced choice of information that was disseminated. For example, the existing policy does not allow AGCOM officers to disseminate local and innovative farmer practices unless they are tested and approved by scientists. Such policies, perpetuates a mindset among farmers that innovations originate from outside their communities, thereby making it hard for them to share their local, indigenous ideas with their colleagues. Moreover, it has contributed to the inability of AGCOM to be used as an innovation creation tool, hence AGCOMs’ limited impact. Keywords: adoption, improved technologies, agricultural communication, increased productivity, information dissemination

Impact of Agricultural Communication Interventions on Improving Agricultural Productivity in Malawi

Agricultural communication (AGCOM) has been known to aid in disseminating research-based agricultural information among Malawian farmers. In 1958 the Malawi Government, via the Ministry of Agriculture, established the Agricultural Communications Branch (ACB) in an attempt to increase access to and adoption of scientifically-proven technologies among farmers. Moreover, in 2000 the Malawi Government started implementing an agricultural extension policy that promoted pluralistic demand-driven extension, which led to the increased availability of non-governmental organizations providing AGCOM services to farmers. However, after several decades of using different communication tools to promote new technologies, low productivity in most small holder farms remains a challenge, with limited adoption of improved technology as one of the contributing factors. In this exploratory, convergent, mixed methods study, 30 Malawian farmers and six AGCOM officers who were selected using convenient and snow ball sampling respectively participated in key informant interviews. In addition, 64 AGCOM officers who were selected using simple random sampling were involved in a survey. The findings of the study revealed that information delivered to farmers does not address farmer needs in most cases. Specifically, existing policies, source and availability of funding, and the agricultural calendar influenced choice of information that was disseminated. For example,the existing policy does not allow AGCOM officers to disseminate local and innovative farmer practices unless they are tested and approved by scientists. Such policies, perpetuates a mindset among farmers that innovations originate from outside their communities, thereby making it hard for them to share their local, indigenous ideas with their colleagues. Moreover, it has contributed to the inability of AGCOM to be used as an innovation creation tool, hence AGCOMs’ limited impact.

Challenges and opportunities of information and communication technologies for dissemination of agricultural information in Ethiopia

This review paper analyses the challenge and opportunities of information and communication technologies for dissemination of agricultural information in Ethiopia. Understanding the challenges and opportunities of information and communication technologies enables to solve the problem of information problem to smallholder farmers. The data was collected, assessed and reviewed from recent secondary data sources from Central statistical agency, and scholarly articles published on the issue of information and communication technology in agriculture (ICT 4 Ag).Compared to the other sector like governance, health and education sectors, ICT-adoption in the agricultural sector has started relatively late in Ethiopia. Even though it is in infant stage, there are many agricultural ICT related service and application in Ethiopia. The current radical penetration of ICTs like mobile phone, website, social media and other internet/online services brings an immense prospect to farmers to create, share, store, process, interpret and preserve agricultural information and knowledge. ICT related agricultural extension system is the solely choice for dissemination of agricultural knowledge and information. Ethiopia is the country which has more than 65000 extension personnel for agricultural extension. But this extension system is not sustainable since it is very costly and inefficient. Thus, agricultural extension policy and intervention should focus on ICT based extension system.

Mechanism of action of policy networks on the performance of university-based agricultural extensions

ABSTRACT Purpose: As a new channel for agricultural extension, university-based agricultural extension is changing the traditional pattern of agricultural extension in China. This study reveals the mechanism through which policy affects the performance of university-based agricultural extension. Design/methodology/approach: Based on Rhodes’ policy network analysis, this study analyses the interactive relationships between the stakeholders in university-based agricultural extension. Taking 12 institutes of new rural development at agricultural universities in China as its sample, the study uses grounded theory to model the mechanism by which policies and policy changes influence the performance of university-based agricultural extension with a view to providing a new theoretical perspective and paradigm for research on university-based agricultural extension policies. Findings: The study reveals a self-reinforcement mechanism in the changes in university-based agricultural extension policies, and shows that path dependence has a normative effect on policy changes. Practical implications: University-based agricultural extension is of great significance to promoting reform and innovation in China’s agricultural extension system, which features ‘one core with multiple supplements’. Theoretical implications: The study reveals the influence of a more complex policy network composed of three levels of policy – state, provincial, local – on university-based agricultural extension, and expands the application of the policy network theory. Originality/value: The findings will guide the Chinese government in achieving its vision of creating the perfect mechanism for university-based agricultural extension.

Agricultural Development in Thailand: Experience and Implications for Vietnam

Agriculture in Thailand has developed as it is today because of the long-term strategic vision of the government. Since the 1980s, agricultural development policy has used a variety of marketing principles, which ensures that there is aharmonious development with rural areas. Agricultural development policies in Thailand faced a lot of challenges such as the narrowed farming area, a large number of rural labor force moving to urban, farmers getting no benefits from government policies.
 The research shed light on agricultural development policies in Thailand, especially key points in agricultural extension policies, agricultural support, rural industrialization policies, modern scientific applications, foreign investment in agriculture, and then drawing some policies in sustainable agriculture development in our country.

Fostering effective use of ICT in agricultural extension: participant responses to an inaugural technology stewardship training program in Trinidad

ABSTRACT Purpose: This study sought to investigate agricultural extension practitioners’ response to an in-service training program offered by the University of the West Indies intended to foster effective use of ICTs (information and communication technologies) through a technology stewardship approach. Design/Methodology/Approach: This study reports on participants responses to an in-service training course on technology stewardship. Data were collected using a pre-course survey, formal course evaluation, classroom observation, and semi-structured interviews with participants. Kirkpatrick's four-level evaluation model was used to structure analysis of the results. Findings: Findings from this study show high levels of receptivity to the technology stewardship training course, that learning objectives of the course are achievable when offered as an in-service training program, and that most participants indicated an intent to apply their learning in a post-course activity. Results from the study raise a number of considerations for future course design and institutional policy in order to better support technology stewardship in practice. Practical implications: Technology stewardship training shows promise as a leadership-oriented approach for expanding the effective use of ICTs among communities of practice for agricultural extension in the Caribbean and elsewhere. Theoretical implications: This study applies key principles of social learning theory from a communities of practice approach with theoretical implications for the design of in-service training related to ICT adoption and use for agricultural extension education and policy. Originality/value: This study reports on the first known application of the technology stewardship model from the communities of practice literature to agricultural extension in the Caribbean.

Beyond Diffusion of Improved Technologies to Promoting Innovation Creation and Information Sharing for Increased Agricultural Productivity: A Case Study of Malawi and Kenya

For several decades, various sub-Saharan Africa governments have been proactive in revamping their agricultural extension service delivery systems through establishment and revisions of their agricultural extension policies. Despite the existence and implementation of these policies, productivity in small holder farms in these countries is still low several years later. The need to enhance agricultural production is still cited as a challenge, with low adoption of improved technologies being found as the major contributing factor. This study used a qualitative approach to examine farmers’ perceptions regarding the role of extension agents in the diffusion of innovations and its implications on sustainable agricultural development in Malawi and Kenya. Increased focus on using agricultural extension as an improved technology dissemination tool was found to be one of the factors contributing to low agricultural productivity. This among others was as result of failure by extension to tap valuable information, useful knowledge, skills and resources which was found to be available among farmers in both countries. The findings imply farmers no longer value their local knowledge and are uncomfortable sharing it amongst themselves. However, addressing the challenge of low agricultural productivity (heavily impacted by climate change) in these countries requires a shift in approach when delivering agricultural extension services. These changes include the use of interactive Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to solicit feedback and input from farmers and to enhance the two-way communication process. Keywords: diffusion of innovations; extension education; improved technologies; policy

Gender analysis of agricultural extension policies in Uganda: informing practice?

In Uganda, agricultural-related policies clearly commit to a Gender and Development (GAD) approach but in many cases, the praxis follows a Women in Development (WID) approach. The same approach cascades into the operations of nonstate actors like Civil Society Organizations (CSOs). Using extensive document review and a gender analysis of key policy documents in Information Communication Technology (ICT) enabled agricultural practice, the article focuses on ways CSOs take up government policies on ICT and agricultural information to improve farmers’ access to agricultural information. Findings show that the government still opts for the male-dominated traditional agricultural extension system. CSOs, in contrast, have adopted a more democratized approach that allows more women to directly access extension services using mobile phones and radios. Whereas the initial aim is a focus on women, men have been allowed to participate in CSO-enabled agricultural information access, challenging the negative gender relations surrounding agriculture, and ICTs that include threats of domestic violence and the refusal of women to use technologies. Breaking these barriers has resulted into better access to agricultural information, more benefits through increased production, access to markets, and income, and more land for women and men alike.

Evaluation of South Africa's public agricultural extension in the context of sustainable agriculture

South Africa’s public agricultural extension services evolved from as early as the beginning of 1900. Agricultural extension is now recognised as a science by the South African Council of Natural Science Profession (SACNASP). This paper presents a philosophical argument that the promotion of sustainable agricultural practices should remain the domain of public extension and advisory services. To provide context, the paper firstly defines agricultural extension and the role extension could play in promoting the five pillars of sustainable agriculture. Secondly, it evaluates the national policy on extension and advisory services to determine the extent to which it addresses the framework of the five pillars for sustainable agriculture. Thirdly, the paper evaluates the Extension Recovery Plan (ERP), norms and standards for agricultural extension and the National Development Plan (NDP) against the framework of sustainable agriculture. The evaluation indicates that only three pillars of sustainability are emphasised. There is a need to subdivide the traditional pillars to align with the full framework for sustainability. The initial findings suggest that, while South Africa’s agricultural extension policy often refers to sustainability and even to sustainable agriculture, they do so using the traditional three-pillared framework of economic, environmental and social sustainability, and thus fall short on key elements essential to sustainable agriculture, namely maintaining and increasing biological productivity, decreasing the level of risk to ensure larger security, protecting the quality of natural resources, ensuring agricultural production is economically viable, and ensuring agricultural production is socially acceptable. The paper also explores government initiatives to support extension and advisory services. Finally, this paper concludes by emphasising that the national policy on extension and advisory services should be amended to suit the five pillars of sustainable agriculture. Keywords: Sustainable agriculture, extension and advisory services, extension, pillars of sustainability, agricultural policy

Uptake and resistance: The rural poor and user-pays agricultural extension in Malawi

The shift to pluralistic agricultural extension services in Malawi sets the context for this article’s focus on the private service provider (PSP) delivery model. The role of the PSP, the alacrity and resistance of smallholder farmers to pay for PSP services, and the challenges experienced in implementing this user-pays approach are examined. We draw on the analytic framework of credibility, salience and legitimacy as germane to understanding uptake and resistance to the PSP model. This article is based on empirical data from a longitudinal qualitative study. Interviews with approximately 50 PSPs and nearly 100 stakeholders from the public, private and non governmental sectors across Malawi were supplemented with focus group discussions with 30 farmer groups in Malawi representing close to 600 smallholders. The results reveal the complexity of shifting to a user-pays system and that PSPs play important roles in delivering services that respond to farmers’ needs. What we are finding in this ongoing research is the uptake by smallholder farmers of the user-pays approach is more likely when all three characteristics of the framework for uptake are attended to – credibility, salience and legitimacy. This article compliments the extant, largely quantitative, literature on willingness to pay by qualitatively teasing out the nuances of farmers’ responses to a user-pays approach in order to explore acts of alacrity and resistance. The findings highlight some practical challenges for agricultural advisory service providers to operationalise the user-pays principle in the Malawi agricultural extension policy. This original empirical research adds to the discourse on farmer development processes. It provides an important example to be learned from in seeking to improve plurality in agricultural extension in sub-Saharan Africa.