Agricultural Extension Policy Research Articles

English

Clear agricultural policies and strategies are very crucial for influencing the performance of agricultural extension and advisory services (AEAS). Malawi has implemented its agricultural extension policy titled “agricultural extension in the new millennium: towards pluralistic and demand driven services in Malawi” for a period of seventeen years. The policy specified seven guiding principles which include provision of demand-driven extension services, ensuring accountability, promoting user participation in extension financing, ensuring resource sustainability, ensuring equal access to extension and advisory services, promotion of pluralism and provision of decentralised but well-coordinated AEAS. The study assessed the effectiveness of four of the seven principles in ensuring user access to quality AEAS. The study used a mixed methods approach which included action research, focus group discussions, key informant interviews and review of various documents. The results show that the four guiding principles which included pluralism, demand-driven services, decentralised coordination and user participation in extension financing had some potential for a positive influence on increasing access to quality AEAS. Pluralism helped in increasing number of service providers thereby increasing farmer access but did not influence the quality of extension. Most of the farmers are not demanding for services and most districts do not have functional District Agriculture Extension Services System (DAESS) structures. Most service providers are not using DAESS structures and this is resulting in poor coordination of services. Malawi should put more efforts in implementing the policy if its fruits are to be fully realised. Particularly, institutionalization of DAESS structures and ensuring their effective operationalization will help to ensure that the benefits of the principles of demand driven services and decentralised coordination are realized. The country also needs to train and engage more extension workers in order to increase farmer access to quality extension services. Key words:  Agricultural extension policy, accountability, coordination, decentralised extension, demand-driven services, extension financing, pluralism.

Maize Supply Response in Vietnam

This study used a supply response model to determine factors affecting maize supply in Vietnam. It estimated response coefficients from semi-annual time-series data for the period 1986-2011. Using three criteria, it chose the rational expectation hypothesis supply response model (Model I) with the separated price expectation formation hypothesis according to the information set at time (t-1) to estimate the supply response model for maize. Farmers used the available information set to form their expected price. Estimated parameters’ results in Model I indicate that the farmers' supply had a positive response to the expected price of maize, but was negative to that of cassava. This means that maize and cassava are close substitutes in the supply response models. Maize production also positively responds to the amount of fertilizer per hectare, maize area, one-period lagged investment, irrigation, trend variable, and agricultural extension policy. Recommended policies include: enhancement of the judicious use of fertilizers and possible establishment of local factories; increase in maize area by changing the crop structure and multiple cropping with long-term industrial trees like perennials and fruit trees; improvement of the irrigation system in two deltas and in high production regions; increase in government support to farmers; increase in government spending on research and development of new maize varieties; and improvement of the extension system to provide farmers the needed market and technological information.

Review of the agricultural extension modes and services with the focus to Balochistan, Pakistan

Abstract This review paper is based on secondary information. It presents the external (policy, technical assistance, public institutions and the private sector) and internal (institutional structures, objectives/programmes) factors that impact on agriculture development in general in developing countries with special focus on Pakistan. The contents carry the literatures that deal with such factors, starting with discussion on the comprehensive analysis of the role of extension services accompanied by its pros and cons, as well as the meager agricultural services in developing countries. This is followed by concrete discussions and the analysis of different approaches/modes of the extension services adopted/implemented worldwide; such as, Training and Visit Approach, Transfer of Technology (ToT), the Farmer Field School approach, and finally, the roles of agricultural research and extension services in promoting sustainable agriculture development. There was a great difference between extension policy and practice in the study area; therefore, there an emerging need to effectively implement policy (2004) providing the required facilities such as, adequate budget, trained extension officials, logistic/transportation facility, trainings, field unit office and to ensure farmers’ participation in problem-solving ( Table 3 ). The old policy of requiring farmers to visit extension agents may need to be changed in order to improve farmers’ access to extension services, particularly in rural areas where public transportation is not easily available. Following the principles of participatory extension services, the new policy needs to be effectively implemented in order to require extension officials to work in cooperation with the farmers. Agricultural extension policy needs to be revamped and then effectively implemented according to the farmers’ needs and problems encountered. The blueprint decentralized extension policy needs to be effectively implemented.

English

Malawi adopted a pluralistic, demand-driven and decentralised agricultural extension system in 2000, following a political change from one party to a multiparty democratic system of government. This was followed by the introduction of a district agricultural extension services system (DAESS) as a way of facilitating the implementation of the pluralistic, demand-driven and decentralised agricultural extension policy. This study was conducted to assess the feasibility and status of implementation of DAESS. The study was conducted as an action research which involved an assessment of the status as well as implementation of the DAESS system. Stakeholder consultations revealed that DAESS is a very good extension system for promoting agricultural and rural development in Malawi considering its socio-political set-up. At the time of the study, the system had not been well established in two of the three districts and the action research activities demonstrated that the system can be established and works effectively in promoting agricultural development. There is need to conduct more sensitization and training of stakeholders for them to understand and effectively implement the system. Key words: Extension system, pluralistic extension, decentralised extension, demand-driven extension, extension policy, action research.

Suggesting a new paradigm for agricultural extension policy: the case of West African Countries

As part of a larger study encompassing sub-Saharan Africa, this paper, the second in a sequence of papers, focuses on West Africa. National extension policies of the region – explicit or implied – were evaluated by means of a framework published by the FAO to guide extension policy formulation. Of its nine components three anchor the framework – mission and goals, approach and functions, and clienteles – and were used in this appraisal. Unexpectedly, the study found that only one country of the 17 nations constituting West Africa has a legislated (i.e. formally adopted) national extension policy. Implied policies were, therefore, garnered, where feasible, for the rest via government publications (e.g. agricultural project reports) and published researched studies from academic and recognised developmental institutions. Broadly, the assessment observed that West African extension missions and goals focussed on improving profitability of agricultural business and increasing output volumes and market share and achieving objectives such as enhancing quality of life and agricultural development. In terms of approaches and functions, the study found that public sector extension in West Africa is undergoing transformation including decentralization and outsourcing extension services in the context of adopting a pluralistic system of extension delivery. While up to six models of extension are a commonly applied in the region, the dominant context is pluralism encompassing public, private and NGO-based services. The dominant clientele were stated to be women and small- and medium-scale farmers. However, entrenched barriers limiting women’s participation are still insufficiently addressed. The study concludes that it is vital for West African governments, perhaps cooperatively, to develop and establish formal extension policies that will manifest their vision, mission, goals and methods to provide a stable framework within which targeted clientele and be purposively supported in the pursuit of sustainable agricultural development. Keywords: Extension, extension policy, West Africa, mission and goals, approach and function, clienteles

The Political Economy of Agricultural Extension Policy in Ethiopia: Economic Growth and Political Control

This article argues that, in Ethiopia, the aim to transform the performance of smallholder agricultural production is driven by the twin imperatives of economic growth and political control. The agricultural extension programme – the largest and fastest growing in the continent – has been central to this strategy, and the unparalleled investment in the extension system has been driven by these twin imperatives. However, there are tensions between the objectives of stimulating agricultural growth, on the one hand, and extensively penetrating society and winning elections, on the other, and these may reduce the returns to this investment. Implications are drawn for wider debates on the reform of agricultural extension.

Role of the Three Tiers of Government in the Provision of Sustainable Agricultural Extension Service in Nigeria

This paper focused on how the three tiers of government actually work in delivering extension services, and whether there is synergy of responsibilities—both financial and managerial—to improve accountability and performance. This analysis provides some informed speculation on what could be expected in terms of outcomes/performance if roles and responsibilities are clearly stated. Thus, it aims to contribute to the process of transformation in the country to reach an agreement on which tier is best suited to undertake extension expenditure responsibilities and how these should be financed. What institutional arrangements would enable better performance in the delivery of extension services? The public extension delivery system operative in Nigeria was reviewed highlighting the major challenges and way forward. The need for a legislated agricultural extension policy championed by the Federal Department of Agricultural Extension (FDAE) was recommended. Key words: Government, sustainable, extension

Monitoring Public Participation Processes at Local Government Level: With Specific Reference to Agricultural Processes in Ntcheu District

Agriculture is the greatest source of economic development in Malawi. With decentralisation, the Ministry of Agriculture and Food security through the Department of Agriculture Extension Services sector, established the New Agricultural Extension policy to create participatory processes to address farmers’ needs. This is against the background that research has shown that the more people participate in developmental issues the more their needs are prioritised, especially if the participatory structures have legal backing and are respected by stakeholders, including government officials. This research engaged the established participatory structures in agricultural processes and the extent of their efficiency. It emerged that these structured were not as effective because committees that could allow for the participation of farmers in planning and decision making at Area and District level are in fact not operational as expected.

Agricultural Extension Systems in West Africa: Adoptable Strategies for Nigeria’s Agricultural Extension Reform Agenda

National agricultural extension and advisory systems have undergone major changes during the past two decades. These changes have been attributed to the success of the Green Revolution, commercialisation of agriculture and trade liberalization. In addition, transnational corporations develop a wide range of new technologies, which directly impact on agricultural production in developed and developing countries. As more and more production technologies become “private goods” and as an increasing percentage of farmers become commercialized producers, advisory services associated with these specialized technology transfer become progressively sophisticated to enhance its efficiency and effectiveness. This necessitates a policy reform that can accommodate the current scenario in the Nigerian quest for rural development. This paper examines the agricultural extension systems in some West African countries for possible adaptation and adoption in Nigeria’s agricultural extension policy reform. Key words: Agricultural extension systems, local development planning, reform agenda.

Effects of Land Degradation on Agriculture in Anambra State: Issue for Agricultural Extension Policy

The study examined the effects of land degradation on agriculture in Anambra state. Two Local Government Areas were purposively selected from the state while a town community was purposively selected from each of the Local Government Areas. Proportionate sampling technique was used to select 50% of the villages in each town and a total of 112 respondents were used for the study. Frequency, percentage and mean score were used for data analysis. Some findings of the study were: erosion (M=2.50), excessive use of inorganic manure and agrochemicals (M=2.45) and construction of roads and houses (M=2.42), were serious causes of land degradation in the area. High cost of input in farming (M=2.52) and rural urban migration were major effects of land degradation in the area. Evidences of the effects of land degradation in the area were: estimated mean monthly income dropped from N35,000 in 2005 to N15,000 in 2009. Mean farm size decreased from 1.5 hectare in 2005 to 0.75 hectare in 2009. Percentage of respondents rearing goat dropped from 80.4% to 41.1% while percentage of respondents growing cassava dropped from 100% to 80.4% within these years. Majority of the respondents pointed out aforestation (77.7%), controlled grazing (75.9%) as strategies they use to prevent land degradation in the area. They sourced information on land management and conservation practices from town criers (M=2.52) and radio (M=2.35).The study enumerated the need to include land management and conservation practices into agricultural extension programme (ADP) so that their clientele( farmers) can be equipped and involved practically in conservation/management of land for improved agricultural output and better future.

Agricultural Extension Policy Suggestion for Decreasing the Loss of Tomato Production in Some Villages in the Abis Extent Region, Alexandria Governorate

Agricultural Extension Policy Suggestion for Decreasing the Loss of Tomato Production in Some Villages in the Abis Extent Region, Alexandria Governorate

The adoption of agricultural extension policies in the Italian farms

The policy for agricultural extension services (AES) has been revitalized during the last phases of rural development policies (2007/2013), to empower human capital in agriculture. A wider package of measures aiming at improving the provision of extension services at farm level is foreseen and financial resources have been allocated in all Italian regions, to strengthen the measures. The paper aims at testing whether such a high proportion of funding matches high levels of utilization of services on behalf of the farms. By assimilating farmers to consumers of AES, the analysis proposes a classification of the farms on the basis of their propensity to consume services.

Du bon usage de l’engrais en politique. Introduction à la modernisation agricole en Éthiopie

As an introduction to the Ethiopian agricultural extension policies, this article focuses on a structural obstacle to rural and agricultural development : the strong ability of State to frame local spaces and local societies. It presents, at the local level, the modalities of distribution and adoption of a technological package by farmers of miscellaneous regions and assumes that the local frame has to be understood as a political dynamics of exercise of power as well as a territorial spreading of the state apparatus.

Towards effective extension delivery approach and strategies for food security poverty alleviation and sustainable development in Nigeria

Agricultural extension is crucial to agricultural development which is cardinal to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The country is currently experiencing implementation of various approaches for extension delivery. This paper took an overview of extension delivery in the country and implied confusion, duplication and waste of resources. The paper recommends adequate implementation of participatory approach with integrated strategies that are farmer driven, inclusive and group oriented such as Farmer Field School (FFS). Furthermore, continuous training for staff and farmers, mainstreaming and targeting of vulnerable groups, promotion of best practices and environment friendly initiatives among others were recommended. It advocates for effective coordination, harmonization and funding of extension outfits; National Food Reserve Agency/Agricultural Development Programmes (NFRA)/(ADPs), Agricultural Research Council of Nigeria/National Agricultural Extension Research Liaison Services (ARCN)/(NAERLS) and LGC agriculture departments. Dovetailing all technology development, adaptation and dissemination activities into Research Extension Farmer Inputs Linkage System (REFILS) will ensure clarity, judicious resource utilization, empowerment of beneficiaries and control of quality of technologies and contents of information disseminated. Agricultural Extension Policy (AEP) will be necessary support the implementation process.

Agricultural Extension Policies in Turkey

Agricultural Extension Policies in Turkey

Women Empowerment And Agricultural Extension Policy: The Changing Role Of Extension Agents

This paper examined the role and challenges of extension agents in empowering women in a bid to revamp the agricultural sector. The activities of women in agricultural production are reviewed against the backdrop of global shift to gender sensitivity, particularly the emphasis on the role of women in agriculture. The paper subscribes to the yearnings and call for National Agricultural Extension Policy to facilitate coordination of extension activities nationwide. It raises the challenges and implication of this paradigm shift for extension agents who will now be saddled with the task of re-orientating themselves to the philosophy and scope of the new demands, including integrating women into the development process. The paper proffers solutions to the aforementioned problems, such as concentration on and re-invigorating the Women-in-Agricultural (WIA) project of the Agricultural Development Programmes (ADPs), women capacity building at farm family level, empowerment and training of the female extension agents, among others. Keywords : Women Empowerment, Agricultural Extension Policy, Extension Changing Roles.

Issues for Agricultural Extension Policy in Nigeria

Agriculture is the bedrock of economic development in Nigeria. However, the development of the sector cannot be achieved without an efficient and effective extension system. Thus, there is the need for a well articulated and comprehensive Agricultural Extension Policy (AEP). It is against this background that the paper examines the content of agricultural extension sub-policy in the current Nigeria’s Agricultural Policy with a view to establishing the need for a National Agricultural Extension Policy (NAEP). Issues in Extension Policy formulation; extension goals, approach and functions, subject matter, geographical coverage, target beneficiaries, organization, staffing, funding and stability were examined and how they could be addressed in the proposed AEP. The paper suggests as the goal; achievement of a well organized extension system for efficient and effective extension delivery in all aspects of sustainable agriculture and rural development to attain food security, poverty reduction, rural empowerment and environment management. It concludes with a summary of key recommendations for the proposed Agricultural Extension Policy. These include constituting a committee on NAEP to be chaired by the PS, FMAWR and the policy should make extension agenda farmer-driven and participatory. Also, decentralization of Nigerian agricultural extension system and its efficient coordination at various levels to ensure effectiveness and sustainability.

Incorporating Migrant Farmers into Nigeria’s Agricultural Extension Policy

The paper described the rural dynamics of Igbo migrant farmers found among Odolu/Igalamela people of Kogi State of Nigeria. Semi-structured interview schedule were used in collecting data from one hundred heads of migrant households. Percentages, wealth classification, mean scores and T-test were used to analyze the data obtained. The study revealed that majority of the responden ts were poor farmers who migrated more than 11 years ago because of economic reasons and poor soils at source area. Most of the migrant farmers had strong links with their places of origin and returned more than twelve times in a year for burial ceremonies of relations, traditional festivals, meetings and marriages. Although both migrant men and women were engaged in various agricultural activities, there were significant differences in each of the various activities engaged in on the basis of gender. The study further revealed that agricultural extension has not made much contribution to the lives and agricultural production of these migrant farmers. There is therefore the need to enact agricultural extension policy that will incorporate these groups of farmers into the general clients targeted by the public extension service in the country. Key words: Igbo migrant farmers, conflicts, gender, policy, extension services.

Linkage Behavior and Practices of Agencies in the Agricultural Innovation Transfer Sub System in Southeastern Nigeria: Issues for Agricultural Extension policy

The study examined the linkage behaviour and practices of agencies in the agricultural innovation transfer sub system in Southeastern Nigeria. A total sample size of 210 respondents purposively selected from ADPs(60), LGs(60), profit NGOs(60), non- profit NGOs(30) were used. Data were collected by the use of questionnaires; and analyzed using percentage, mean scores, and factor analysis. The study revealed poor linkage dynamics among the agencies. Majority (72.2%) ADPS of the respondents indicated strong linkages with research institutes, but linkages with agencies in the transfer sub-system were either weak or not in existence. The LGs as well as profit NGOs had either weak or no linkage with most agencies in both innovation generation and transfer sub- systems. Non-profit NGOs(50.0%) reported somewhat strong linkages with research institutes; while (61.5%,65.5%and 50.0%) indicated that linkages with universities of agriculture, colleges of agriculture and para-veterinary firms were not in existent, respectively. The major linkage mechanisms that existed among the agencies were use of bulletin, annual reports, and magazine. Factors constraining linkages among the agencies were policy related, organizational, attitude –related, and motivational. The study concludes that operational and structural mechanisms should be put in place to facilitate strong and effective linkages for efficiency of resource use and cost effectiveness through synergies and complementarities of efforts. Government should entrench linkage mandate in policies establishing research-extension system to encourage and facilitate public-public and public-private linkages in the sub-system. Existing institutional framework for linkages between research and extension system should be re-visited to evolve more dynamic arrangements and to create mechanism for increase participation of private agencies. Also policy makers should invest on orientation and building linkage leadership among administrators and extension practitioners to stimulate innovation culture.

Issues for Agricultural Extension Policy: Structures and Institutional Arrangement

This paper examined issues pertaining to structures and institutional arrangement for agricultural extension policy. It highlighted the broad objectives of the new policy thrust in agriculture in Nigeria, and identified sub-policies that were expected to facilitate growth of the agricultural sector of the economy. Agricultural extension, among others, was identified as an integral part of the agricultural policy. Transfer of agricultural information and innovations was highlighted as the prime responsibility of agricultural extension. It was observed that extension has not lived up to this responsibility due to a number of reasons, principal among which is inadequate funding among others. The Agricultural Development Programmed (ADP) was identified as the institutional agency responsible for the transfer of agricultural information and innovations to farmers. The ADP was observed to operate the Unified Agricultural Extension System (UAES) using the Training and Visit (T&V) extension system. In order to ensure effectiveness in the discharge of its mandate to its clientele, the extension agency needed to maintain working linkages with research organsations/institutions. About 15 national agricultural research institutes, which are mainly concerned with technology (innovation/ knowledge) creation/development, were identified. Also three universities of agricultures as well as faculties of the conventional universities in the country were identified. The need to secure a stable and sustained source of financing agricultural extension was identified as the most difficult and challenging policy issue facing the agricultural extension services in Nigeria today. It was recommended that a legal legislative action be put in place, which would, among other things, define the responsibilities of the various tiers of government towards financing agricultural extension services in Nigeria. It was also recommended that a demand-driven (private) extension service be institutionalized to thrive along with the UAES, which has often been seen as part of the social services rendered by government for the farming populace.