Relative Ages Research Articles

Personal life strategies and their correlation with biological age

The goal of this research is to examine the ways of organization of life used by modern men and women, and to determine personal characteristics that are associated with biological age of a person and reduce personal aging markers. The object of this research is the personality and life path, while the subject is the correlation between life organization strategies and rate of biological aging. The following methods were applied in the course of research: life path survey, self-assessment, determination of biological age. The study involved 987 respondents (575 women) aged 35 to 70, from different regions of the Russian Federation. Independent variable implies relative biological aging of the body (biological age –proper biological age); dependent variable– characteristics of life path. The scientific novelty consists in description of the ways of organization of life used by modern men and women. For men is typical: career building, work orientation, unhealthy lifestyle orientation towards family, self-fulfillment; while for women: career building, being a role model, work orientation, unhealthy lifestyle, choice between children and work. It is also proven that biological aging is delayed by the indicators included in most strategies: types of professions “Man – Nature”, “Man-Man”, “Man-Artistic Image”, “Man – Technology”, “Man – Symbol”, and style of cooperation. Biological aging can be accelerated by such indicators as: aggressiveness, overeating, smoking, living in a large city, career. The conclusion is made that personality traits that correlate with biological do not depend on just one life path strategy, however by one or two suit for most of them.

Recharge mechanisms of deep soil water revealed by water isotopes in deep loess deposits

Isotopes in soil water are useful tracers of flow and transport processes in the subsurface. The combined utility of stable (2H, 18O) and radioactive (3H) isotopes in soil water, however, is seldom explored in vadose zone studies, particularly in identifying deep soil water recharge mechanisms (sources, fluxes, and ages). Here we show that the combined use of 2H, 18O, and 3H can identify the sources and recharge mechanisms of water to thick deep soils of the Loess Plateau, China. We found that high soil water tritium concentrations were limited between 6 and 7 m from the surface, suggesting that soils deeper than 7 m were comprised of water older than ~50 years, while soils shallower than 6 m represented water younger than ~50 years. We also found that rainfall intensity played an important role in deep soil water recharge. Stable isotopes suggest that only a few extreme rainfall events (≥30 mm/day) during the rainy season infiltrated to deep soil layers, but the age of water that recharged the soils at these depths were older than ~50 years as inferred from tritium. These combined insights from stable and radioactive isotopes in soil water suggest that (1) waters in these deep soils are much older than the apple orchards that cover these landscapes, and (2) very few high-intensity rainfall events have reached the deeper parts of the soil profile since the apple orchards were established <24 years ago. The latter is supported by our findings that deep soil water storage beneath the apple orchards was significantly reduced, presumably because of root water uptake. Our results demonstrate the combined utility of tritium and stable isotopes in identifying relative ages and mechanisms of soil water recharge, and in characterizing the possible effects of land cover on soil water movement. We anticipate broader applicability of these findings, particularly in characterizing water resources sustainability against the backdrop of changing land cover in other arid and semi-arid regions.

Starzeć się to znaczy dojrzewać. Starość jako kategoria aksjologiczna w geragogice

In the text, the author presents old age and the process of ageing in relation to axiologically perceived “maturing” category which is transgressing, in the assumed meaning, the biological aspect. The author examines ageing as the process of maturing to fullness of humanity, manifested in reaching transcendental values. Ageing perceived in this way is compared to the chosen conceptions of ageing. The author analyses ageing as maturing from a holistic and biographic perspective; as a result of activity of a conscious subject and the process of learning. The author also includes the axiological approach to ageing as maturing in the field of geragogical reflection as a subdiscipline of pedagogy.

Subtype-specific risk factors for postmenopausal breast cancer: findings from the PLCO trial.

The aim of this analysis is to evaluate the relative weight of different epidemiological risk factors on the development of different breast cancer subtypes (i.e. luminal, Her2+ overexpressed or triple negative). De-identified datasets of female participants recruited within the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian (PLCO) trial were accessed. Multivariate Cox regression analysis was utilized to assess factors affecting the development of breast cancer (regardless of subtype). Additional multivariate analyses were conducted to assess factors affecting the development of the three principal subtypes of breast cancer (ER+/Her2- breast cancer; Her2 overexpressed breast cancer and ER-/Her2- breast cancer). A total of 73,570 eligible participants were evaluated in the current analysis of which 2370 participants subsequently developed breast cancer. The following factors were associated with a higher risk of ER+/Her2- breast cancer: white race (P < 0.001), nulliparity (P < 0.001), higher body mass index (P = 0.003), prior exposure to hormone treatment (P = 0.004) and breast cancer in first-degree female relatives (P < 0.001). The following factors were associated with a higher risk of Her2 overexpressed breast cancer: prior exposure to hormone treatment (P = 0.002) and breast cancer in first-degree female relatives (P = 0.001). The following factors were associated with a higher risk of ER-/Her2- breast cancer: black race (P = 0.013), younger age (P = 0.017) and breast cancer in first-degree female relatives (P 0.023). There is considerable heterogeneity in risk factors among patients with different subtypes of breast cancer. In particular, factors associated with high estrogen levels seem to be associated with luminal breast cancer rather than other breast cancer subtypes.

Abstract P547: The Relationship Between Alcohol Drinking Before Sleeping(Ne-Zake) or in the Morning(Mukae-Zake) and Sleeplessness Among Farmers

Introduction: Drinking alcohol before sleeping (Ne-Zake) or in the morning (Mukae-Zake) is occasionally seen in Japan although it is well known that drinking alcohol have some negative effects on sleep. There have been studies which indicated that alcohol worsen sleep quality and quantity however few which investigated how alcohol before sleeping and no which noticed on how alcohol in the morning affects. The purpose of this study is to verify the relationship between Ne-Zake and/or Mukae-Zake and insomnia adjusting the influence of quality and frequency of drinking on the relationship. Hypothesis: We assessed the hypothesis that there is a significant association between Ne-Zake and/or Mukae-Zake and sleeplessness but this association can be confounded by quality and frequency of drinking. Method: Seven hundred and forty-six farmers who underwent annual medical checkups were analyzed. Ne-Zake was defined as “drinking as a sleeping aid” and Mukae-Zake was defined as “drinking in order to get calm down or to fix hungover”. Athene Insomnia Scale (AIS) was used to evaluate objective sleeplessness. AIS consists of 8 questions, which were evaluated from 0 (no sleeplessness) to 3 points (severe sleeplessness), asking the sleeping status in the previous 2 weeks. Insomnia was defined by AIS point more than 6. We conducted the multivariable logistic analysis, setting the presence of insomnia as a dependent variable and the presence of Ne-Zake and Mukae-Zake, quantity of alcohol at one time, frequency of drinking, sleeping related diseases (sleep apnea syndrome, restless leg syndrome, narcolepsy, limb movement disorder, depression), gender, and age as independent variables. Results: Among a total of 746 farmers (mean age 59.5 years; 74.1% men), insomnia, Ne-Zake, and Mukae-Zake were observed in 151 (20.2%), 140 (18.8%) and 37 (5.0%), respectively. Adjusted odds ratios (95% Confidence Intervals) of Ne-Zake and Mukae-Zake were 1.75 (1.07-2.88) and 3.01 (1.41-6.42). The association of Ne-Zake was consistent between men and women but that of Mukae-Zake was stronger in men than in women. (P-values for interaction = 0.98 and 0.03, respectively). Conclusion: Both Ne-Zake and Mukae-Zake had statistically positive significant association with insomnia independent of quantity and frequency of drinking. It may indicate that the timing of drinking alcohol has a stronger relationship with insomnia than quantity and frequency of drinking does. The feature of farmers’ lives in which they can decide their life style might give more opportunities to have Ne-Zake and/or Mukae-Zake than groups with well-scheduled working environment. This result can be utilized to improve farmers’ further physical and psychological health related to alcohol by encouraging to pay attention to not only the quantity or frequency of alcohol drinking but also the timing in a day.

Deriving Surface Ages on Mars Using Automated Crater Counting

AbstractImpact craters on solar system bodies are used to determine the relative ages of surfaces. The smaller the limiting primary crater size, the higher the spatial resolution in surface/resurfacing age dating. A manually counted database (Robbins &amp; Hynek, 2012, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JE003966) of &gt;384,000 craters on Mars &gt;1 km in diameter exists. But because crater size scales as a power law, the number of impact craters in the size range 10 m to 1 km is in the tens of millions, a number making precise analysis of local variations of age, over an entire surface, impossible to perform by manual counting. To decode this crater size population at a planetary scale, we developed an automated Crater Detection Algorithm based on the You Only Look Once v3 object detection system. The algorithm was trained by annotating images of the controlled Thermal Emission Imaging System daytime infrared data set. This training data set contains 7,048 craters that the algorithm used as a learning benchmark. The results were validated against the manually counted database as the ground truth data set. We applied our algorithm to the Thermal Emission Imaging System global mosaic between ±65° of latitude, returning a true positive detection rate of 91% and a diameter estimation error (~15%) consistent with typical manual count variation. Importantly, although a number of automated crater counting algorithms have been published, for the first time we demonstrate that automatic counting can be routinely used to derive robust surface ages.

On relative ageing of coherent systems with dependent identically distributed components

AbstractRelative ageing describes how one system ages with respect to another. The ageing faster orders are used to compare the relative ageing of two systems. Here, we study ageing faster orders in the hazard and reversed hazard rates. We provide some sufficient conditions for one coherent system to dominate another with respect to ageing faster orders. Further, we investigate whether the active redundancy at the component level is more effective than that at the system level with respect to ageing faster orders, for a coherent system. Furthermore, a used coherent system and a coherent system made out of used components are compared with respect to ageing faster orders.

RESEARCH ON ECONOMIC COMPONENT OF DYNAMIC MECHANISM OF THE FORMATION OF A FAMILY FARM IN CHINA

As a new type of agricultural management subject, the emergence of family farm has been widely concerned by academic circles. Under the background of industrialization and urbanization, the development of family farm is an important strategic measure to deal with the strategic issues related to the future development of agriculture and economic society, such as the agricultural part-time industry, rural hollowing out, and the aging of farmers. It is the key point of China's agricultural policy at present. Food security, farmers' income increase and agricultural development are the key to solve the three rural issues, and also an important guarantee for economic development and social stability. With the acceleration of the urbanization process, a large number of agricultural young and middle-aged labor force continue to flow to the city. On the one hand, it leads to the relative shortage and aging of agricultural labor force, and at the same time, the commodity demand for food is also increasing. The main function of most agricultural production of traditional small-scale farmers is self-sufficiency and low agricultural commodity. China is a country with a large population. Food security has always been a major concern of the government. food security needs to ensure food quantity security. If more than 1.3 billion people can't achieve basic self-sufficiency in food, the consequences are very serious. For the consideration of food safety, the country also urgently needs the management of the main body system of agricultural production and operation. At present, there are still about 230 million small farmers in China, accounting for more than 98% of the main agricultural business. It is obvious that the government is unable to form effective supervision on such a large number of small farmers who operate independently. The emergence of family farms makes the land gradually concentrated to the skilled farmers. On the one hand, it reduces the number of agricultural operators, on the other hand, it will enhance the controllability of agricultural production, which is conducive to the government to strengthen the supervision of agricultural production. In 2013, family farm was defined as an important part of the new agricultural operation subject in China. With its own advantages, in recent years, it has developed rapidly and become a representative of the new scale agricultural production organization.

Criteria deemed important by the relatives for designating a reference person for patients hospitalized in ICU.

We investigated the criteria that patients' relatives deem important for choosing, among themselves, the person best qualified to interact with the caregiving staff. Exploratory, observational, prospective, multicentre study between 1st March and 31st October 2018 in 2 intensive care units (ICUs). A 12-item questionnaire was completed anonymously by family members of patients hospitalized in the ICU 3 and 5days after the patient's admission. Relatives were eligible if they understood French and if no surrogate had been appointed by the patient prior to ICU admission. More than one relative per patient could participate. In total, 87 relatives of 73 patients completed the questionnaire, average age of relatives was 58±15years, 46% were the spouse, 30% were children/grandchildren. Items classed as being the most important attributes for a reference person were: good knowledge of the patient's wishes and values; an emotional attachment to the patient; being a family member; and having an adequate understanding of the clinical status and clinical history. This study identifies the attributes considered by relatives to be most important for designating, among themselves, a reference person for a patient hospitalized in the ICU.

Spatial and temporal distribution patterns of Precambrian mafic dyke swarms in northern Mauritania (West African craton): analysis and results from remote-sensing interpretation, geographical information systems (GIS), Google Earth ™ images, and regional geology

We used remote sensing, geographical information systems, Google Earth™ images, and regional geology in order to (i) improve the mapping of linear structures and understand the chronology of different mafic dyke swarms in the Ahmeyim area that belongs to the Archean Tasiast-Tijirit Terrane of the Reguibat Shield, West African craton, NW Mauritania. The spatial and temporal distributions with the trends of the dyke swarms provide important information about geodynamics. The analysis of the mafic dyke swarms map and statistical data allow us to distinguish four mafic dyke swarm sets: a major swarm trending NE-SW to NNE-SSW (80%) and three minor swarms trending EW to ENE-WSW (9.33%), NW-SE to WNW-ESE (9.06%), and NS (1.3%). The major swarms extend over 35 km while the minor swarms do not exceed 13 km. The Google Earth™ images reveal relative ages through crossover relationships. The major NE-SW to NNE-SSW and the minor NS swarms are the oldest generations emplaced in the Ahemyim area. The NW-SE-oriented swarm dykes which are cutting the two former swarms are emplaced later. The minor E-W to WSW-ENE swarms are probably the youngest. A precise U-Pb baddeleyite age of 2733 ± 2 Ma has been obtained for the NNE-SSW Ahmeyim Great Dyke. This dyke is approximately 1500 m wide in some zone and extends for more than 150 km. The distinct mafic dyke swarms being identified in this study can potentially be linked with coeval magmatic events on other cratons around the globe to identify reconstructed LIPs and constrain continental reconstructions. (Less)

ON RELATIVE AGING COMPARISONS OF COHERENT SYSTEMS WITH IDENTICALLY DISTRIBUTED COMPONENTS

The relative aging is an important notion which is useful to measure how a system ages relative to another one. Among the existing stochastic orders, there are two important orders describing the relative aging of two systems, namely, aging faster orders in the cumulative hazard and the cumulative reversed hazard rate functions. In this paper, we give some sufficient conditions under which one coherent system ages faster than another one with respect to the aforementioned stochastic orders. Further, we show that the proposed sufficient conditions are satisfied for k-out-of-n systems. Moreover, some numerical examples are given to illustrate the applications of proposed results.

Online aging determination in lithium-ion battery module with forced temperature gradient

Voltage imbalance in lithium-ion battery packs, which leads to impaired utilization of the whole energy-storage system, is often linked to different self-discharge rates. Despite the established use of balancing circuits, neither the true origin of voltage imbalance nor the benefits of cell balancing are as yet completely understood. In this study, a forced temperature gradient along six in-series connected, commercial 18650 nickel-rich/SiC cells was applied during cycles resulting in cell temperatures of between 25 ∘C and 30 ∘C. Every 20 cycles, the 6s1p module was equalized using dissipative balancing. Aging behavior was analyzed using checkup measurements, differential voltage analysis (DVA) and conclusive scanning electron microscope (SEM) imaging of negative electrodes. The results obtained in this work reveal that the forced temperature gradient caused different degradation rates, whereas the colder cells exhibited aggravated aging behavior, which was linked to lithium plating. Furthermore, the lithium plating caused the majority of the voltage drift within the module. The application of dissipative balancing enabled an improved utilization of the module, and increased the discharge energy. Finally, the cumulative balancing charge reflected the capacity differences between the cells, and could therefore be used for the online determination of relative aging of single cells or cell blocks in lithium-ion battery packs..

Reliability study of series and parallel systems of heterogeneous component lifetimes following proportional odds model

In this paper, we investigate various stochastic orderings for series and parallel systems with independent and heterogeneous components having lifetimes following the proportional odds model. We also investigate comparisons between a system with heterogeneous components and that with homogeneous components. This paper also studies relative ageing orders for two systems in the framework of components having lifetimes following the proportional odds model.

Relationships Between Experiences of Sibling Physical Aggression and Lifetime Aggression Using Statistical Controls for Poly-Victimization

This study examined how sibling physical aggression (SPA) influences lifetime aggression after controlling for variance due to childhood physical abuse, observed parental aggression, peer aggression, childhood emotional abuse, and childhood sexual abuse. The results of this study were also compared to a similar study that utilized a college sample (King et al. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 27(5) 523–540, Violence and Victims, 32(6), 998–1013, 2017a, b). Participants from a national sample (N = 916) completed the Violent Experiences Questionnaire-Revised (VEQ-R), Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ), Lifetime Assessment of Violent Acts (LAVA), and self-reports regarding sexual assault and conduct disorder. Analytic strategies included bivariate correlation coefficient calculations, linear regression analyses, analyses of covariance, and relative risk analyses. SPA occurring only once a year was associated with increased conduct disorder symptoms, trait hostility, and legal consequences for violence. SPA perpetrated by a younger sibling significantly impacted conduct disorder symptoms, BPAQ subscale scores, and LAVA index scores. This study failed to replicate results found in the similar study that utilized a college sample (King et al. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 27(5) 523–540, Violence and Victims, 32(6), 998–1013, 2017a, b). The impact of SPA on lifetime aggression warrants the careful consideration of SPA in clinical settings as well as any future studies that attempt to control for poly-victimization. The implications of the relational age of the perpetrator to the victim also warrant careful consideration in any future studies that attempt to control for poly-victimization.

Highly robust and transparent flexible cover window films based on UV‐curable polysilsesquioxane nano sol

AbstractFlexible cover window films based on the ultraviolet‐curable polysilsesquioxane are prepared to have enhanced mechanical, optical properties, and bending performance. To figure out the factors determining those properties, post–treatment conditions are varied into the light source, temperature, and relative humidity. Then, the effect of such variables is examined in respect of surface hardness, yellow index (YI), and bending cycle reliability of flexible hard coating. Also, the effect of photoinitiator type in terms of their chemical structure is also investigated. Notably, the relative humidity and thermal treatment are more effective to enhance the mechanical properties rather than light exposure. Indeed, compared to that of reference condition, the cover windows treated with 99% relative humidity and thermal aging at 85°C exhibit improved surface hardness by 24.4 and 19.5%, respectively. However, only the relative humidity is rather effective to enhance the optical properties such as the YI by lowering to the most 2.6. The YI is also improved by varying the chemical structure of the photoinitiator. By virtue of post–treatment and a different photoinitiator, we could achieve flexible cover window films with bending reliability at bending radius of 3 mm for 100,000 cycles, showing good mechanical and optical properties simultaneously.

The role of growth and maturation during adolescence on team-selection and short-term sports participation

Background During adolescence, deselection from sport occurs during team try-outs when month of birth, stage of growth and maturation may influence selection. Aim The purpose of this study was to identify differences in growth and maturity related factors between those selected and deselected in youth sports teams and identify short-term associations with continued participation. Subjects and methods Eight hundred and seventy participants, aged 11–17 years, were recruited from six sports try-outs in Saskatchewan, Canada: baseball, basketball, football, hockey, soccer and volleyball. Two hundred and forty-four of the initial 870 (28%) returned for follow-up at 36 months. Chronological (years from birth), biological (years from age at peak height velocity (APHV)) and relative (month of birth as it relates to the selection band) ages were calculated from measures of date of birth, date of test, height, sitting height and weight. Parental heights were measured or recalled and participant’s adult height predicted. Reference standards were used to calculate z-scores. Sports participation was self-reported at try-outs and at 36-month follow-up. Results There was an over-representation of players across all sports born in the first and second quartiles of the selection bands (p < 0.05), whether they were selected or deselected. z-scores for predicted adult height ranged from 0.1 (1.1) to 1.8 (1.2) and were significantly different between sports (p < 0.05). Height and APHV differences (p < 0.05) were found between selected and deselected male participants. In females only weight differed between selected and deselected female hockey players (p < 0.05); no further differences were found between selected and deselected female participants. Four per cent of deselected athletes exited sports participation and 68% of deselected athletes remained in the same sport at 36 months, compared with 84% of selected athletes who remained in the same sport. Conclusions It was found that youth who attended sports team’s try-outs were more likely to be born early in the selection year, be tall for their age, and in some sports early maturers. The majority of both the selected and deselected participants continued to participate in sport 36 months after try-outs, with the majority continuing to participate in their try-out sport.

The minimum confidence limit for diameters in crater counts

Size-frequency distribution (i.e., SFD) of impact craters are frequently used to study relative and absolute model ages for planetary surfaces. It is well accepted that crater statistics are incomplete and crater recognition is inaccurate at diameter ranges approaching a few pixels of the images used, but there is no benchmark about the minimum confidence limit for diameter (Dmin). Here we resolve this problem by comparing the SFD of each studied crater population using a same image dataset that has been down-sampled by different folds. A systematical study of several different-aged lunar crater populations using various image datasets found that crater statistics can be regarded as completed and crater rim identification can be regarded as accurate at diameters larger than about 10 pixels of the base images. Integrating other potential difficulties in crater counts (e.g., illumination conditions, personal biases, topography roughness, size of counting areas) would indicate that 10 pixels should be considered as a conservative suggestion. Using 10 pixels as Dmin could substantially enhance the reliability of crater counts, especially for prevalent high-resolution regional geological studies that employ populations of small craters.

Risk of pelvic organ prolapse treatment based on extended family history

Family history of pelvic organ prolapse among first-degree relatives is an established risk factor for pelvic organ prolapse; however, consideration of the constellation of family history that extends to distant relationships allows for more accurate determination of risk and may improve pelvic organ prolapse risk prediction estimates. The purpose of this study was to assess risk for pelvic organ prolapse treatment based on varying family histories of pelvic organ prolapse and included number and types of affected relatives, ages of relatives at pelvic organ prolapse treatment, and whether the family history is of maternal or paternal origin. This was a retrospective, population-based study that involved the Utah Population Database, which is a population resource that includes extensive genealogy information linked to medical records. The study population included 453,522 total women: 4628 women with a diagnosis of treated (surgical or pessary) pelvic organ prolapse and their 15,530 first-degree relatives; 33,782 second-degree relatives, and 66,469 third-degree relatives. We estimated relative risk of treated pelvic organ prolapse based on specific family history constellations. Relative risk estimates increased with a family history of increasing numbers of treated first-degree relatives with pelvic organ prolapse (first-degree relatives, ≥1 [relative risk, 2.36; 95% confidence interval, 2.15-2.58], first-degree relatives, ≥2 [relative risk, 3.79; 95% confidence interval, 2.65-5.24], and first-degree relatives, ≥3 [relative risk, 6.26; 95% confidence interval, 1.29-18.30]). Having a family history of ≥3 affected third-degree relatives (eg, first cousins) and no affected first- or second-degree relatives was similar in risk to having 1 affected first-degree relative. Relative risk estimates decreased with increasing age of treatment for first-degree family members. Risks in individuals with a positive maternal family history for pelvic organ prolapse were consistently higher than risks in individuals with equivalent paternal family history, but paternal inheritance still played a role. Approximately 4% of the total studied female population was found to have a >2-fold risk of being treated for pelvic organ prolapse and is considered high-risk based on their family history. We provide estimates for treated pelvic organ prolapse based on an extensive family history of pelvic organ prolapse using a large population-based sample. Risk for treated pelvic organ prolapse increased with increasing numbers of affected close and distant female relatives, earlier age of pelvic organ prolapse treatment in relatives, and maternal inheritance. These risk estimates may be useful for genetic studies and investigation of risk reduction strategies in those at highest risk for pelvic organ prolapse.

Behavior and distribution of polystyrene foams on the shore of Tuul River in Mongolia

Foamed plastic debris in aquatic systems has become one of the emerging global contaminants. In this study, the behavior of polystyrene foam (PSF) and microplastics (MPs) adhered on the PSFs were investigated on the Tuul River shore in Ulaanbaatar, the capital city of Mongolia. The micro-sized (<5 mm) PSF, which was the dominant PSF over 600 pieces in 100 m2, have accumulated along the shoreline of Tuul River. Carbonyl index (CI) was calculated to evaluate the surface oxidation of macro-sized (20–100 mm), meso-sized (5–20 mm), and micro-sized PSFs and confirm the relative aging depending on photodegradation. CI ranged from 0.00 to 1.09 in the sampled PSFs, whereby the degraded PSFs with high CI were distributed on the shore of downstream of sewer drainage. Micro-sized PSFs showed a wide range of CI and a relatively high average value of CI as compared to those of meso- and macro-sized PSFs. Most of PSFs aggregated with MPs and the adhered MPs have been ubiquitously detected from the surface of PSFs. Adhered micro-sized plastics explored from the surface of PSFs with various sizes, except for mega-sized (>100 mm) PSF, ranged from 5 to 141 items per piece of PSF fragment. The aggregates of PSFs and MPs were common status of PSFs during their transportation. The present findings, which indicated a high concentration of adhered MPs, raise an environmental concern about the widespread aquatic plastic pollution.

Insights from Empirical Analyses and Simulations on Using Multiple Fossil Calibrations with Relaxed Clocks to Estimate Divergence Times.

Relaxed clock methods account for among-branch-rate-variation when estimating divergence times by inferring different rates for individual branches. In order to infer different rates for individual branches, important assumptions are required. This is because molecular sequence data do not provide direct information about rates but instead provide direct information about the total number of substitutions along any branch, which is a product of the rate and time for that branch. Often, the assumptions required for estimating rates for individual branches depend heavily on the implementation of multiple fossil calibrations in a single phylogeny. Here, we show that the basis of these assumptions is often critically undermined. First, we highlight that the temporal distribution of the fossil record often violates key assumptions of methods that use multiple fossil calibrations with relaxed clocks. With respect to "node calibration" methods, this conclusion is based on our inference that different fossil calibrations are unlikely to reflect the relative ages of different clades. With respect to the fossilized birth-death process, this conclusion is based on our inference that the fossil recovery rate is often highly heterogeneous. We then demonstrate that methods of divergence time estimation that use multiple fossil calibrations are highly sensitive to assumptions about the fossil record and among-branch-rate-variation. Given the problems associated with these assumptions, our results highlight that using multiple fossil calibrations with relaxed clocks often does little to improve the accuracy of divergence time estimates.