Aggressive Mood Research Articles

Tell-tale signals: faces reveal playful and aggressive mood in wolves

Tell-tale signals: faces reveal playful and aggressive mood in wolves

Endocannabinoid System: behavioral modulation in murine models by Cannabinoids type 2 receptors

In the last decades, the eCB system has been highlighted by its neuro and immunomodulatory effects. Beyond CB1R effects in Central Nervous System (CNS), CB2R target drugs has been showed to be promising to mitigation of neuroinflammatory diseases in mouse models. However, it remains unknow the effects of CB2R target drugs on behavior. Therefore, we review the effects of CB2R on behavior in murine models by Pubmed website, selecting studies between 2001 to 2021. In this sense, many studies has demonstrated the effects of overexpression, lack, activation or antagonization of CB2R on Aggressive behavior, Memory-associated behaviors, Mood disorders and Reward behavior. Similarly, it is not clear yet how the eCB system modulates the behavior through CB2Rs present in neurons. Thus, in mouse models, although the pharmacological treatment with CB2R target drugs seems to be promising for neuroinflammatory diseases, on behavior there are few answers about the pathways of this modulation, as well as, it is fundamental the development and/or the update of behavioral tests that evaluate many parameters, then expose better interpretations in these tests.

Depresssion, anxiety and other cognitive consequences of social isolation: Drug and non-drug treatments.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, quarantine and staying at home is advised. The social relationship between people has become deficient, and human social isolation (SI) has become the consequence of this situation. It was shown that SI has made changes in hippocampal neuroplasticity, which will lead to poor cognitive function and behavioural abnormalities. There is a connection between SI, learning, and memory impairments. In addition, anxiety-like behaviour and increased aggressive mood in long-term isolation have been revealed during the COVID-19 outbreak. Term searches was done in Google Scholar, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science and PubMed databases as well as hand searching in key resource journals from 1979 to 2020. Studies have shown that some drug administrations may positively affect or even prevent social isolation consequences in animal models. These drug treatments have included opioid drugs, anti-depressants, Antioxidants, and herbal medications. In addition to drug interventions, there are non-drug treatments that include an enriched environment, regular exercise, and music. This manuscript aims to review improved cognitive impairments induced by SI during COVID-19.

El humor en los dominicanos como pretexto del trauma cultural de la colonización

En este articulo de reflexión se plantea que el humor en los dominicanos se ha convertido en una defensa patológica que permanece como una barrera que impide integrar las experiencias traumáticas, como fue la colonización. El enfoque es cualitativo con un diseño documental de tipo bibliográfico y argumentativo. La colonización significó un acontecimiento traumático que alteró la vida de los pueblos originarios con experiencias colectivas de abuso, muertes, malos tratos, trabajo forzado, hambrunas, epidemias, guerras, suicidios, un sistema esclavista despiadado y la pérdida cultural. La colonización se manifiesta como una herida enmascarada del trauma cultural que se afronta desde lo inconsciente a través de la figura del Trickster personaje universal que representa lo cómico. El Trickster dominicano, como figura daimónica, se polariza en la sombra, convirtiéndose en persecutor por medio del humor agresivo, que se manifiesta como una defensa inconsciente que pretende menospreciar y ridiculizar al otro. Este humor agresivo, espasmódico y seco es una forma de control compulsivo que se conoce como relajo. Es un Trickster que expresa la invisibilización de los grupos originarios, la desdicha de la herencia española, la tristeza del negro esclavo y todo el sufrimiento a posteriori de la colonización en una mezcla racial y cultural parcialmente incorporada. El relajo del dominicano es una defensa inconsciente, que mantiene la estructura del trauma, por tanto, la fragmentación polarizada del self individual y colectivo, que no se integra a la vida consciente por lo tanto perdura como una continua disculpa del trauma histórico y cultural de la colonización.

Hate speech in Ukrainian internet space: religious context

Introduction. Recently in the Ukrainian media space, there are a lot of info texts on religious topics; however, special attention should be given to the problem of hate speech used in such texts, as a repetition of certain messages that employ negatively colored or offensive lexis in relation to denominations is an indicator of influence on public opinion which can provoke the aggressive public mood. The relevance of the study. The aim of this paper is to study the peculiarities of using hate speech in info texts on religious topics represented in the Ukrainian online space. It includes, in particular, monitoring of the Internet in order to detect those secular and denominational resources that employ expressive means of hate speech in headlines or info texts on religious topics, as well as the study of lexical, stylistic, structural, and other peculiarities of hate speech and discovery of reasons for using it. Research methods. The research is grounded on the information approach; the method of academic literature analysis was used for general exploration of the subject, for defining the level of the theoretical study of such aspect of religious journalism as the use of hate speech by secular and denominational mass-media in reports on religious topics; methods of analysis and generalization – to distinguish the expressive means of hate speech that are used in the religious segment of the Internet space, and to determine the causes of their application. Results. The following reasons for hate speech use have been defined: 1) with the aim of influencing public opinion, i.e. forming a negative image of a confession, and humiliating its status; 2) with the aim of making web headlines more ardent by means of expressive lexis use, which, in its turn, is capable of provoking readers’ interest and attracting new visitors to the website. There are such particularly the appeal to political stereotypes, as well as the use of politically-marked words and political slang, jargonisms, vulgarisms, dysphemisms, stylistic lowering that secure the desired expressive effect. The importance of a communicator’s status, which gives more value to a message, has been highlighted. Usually, the use of hate speech is grounded on binary opposition ‘friend-or-foe’. Conclusions. The academic novelty of this research is determined by singling out the peculiarities (lexical, stylistic, structural, etc.) of hate speech in the religious segment of the Ukrainian online space and by discovering the reasons for using it. A prospect for further research is the study of communication between church and state in the Ukrainian media. Keywords: mass media, religious topics, Internet resources, hate speech, information confrontation, stereotypes.

Adverse Events During Perampanel Adjunctive Therapy in Intractable Epilepsy.

Background and PurposePerampanel is the first α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid (AMPA)-receptor antagonist developed to treat epilepsy. The effects of either rapid or slow dose titration on adverse events remain to be elucidated.MethodsEighty-five patients received perampanel between March 2016 and August 2016. Patients were divided into two groups according to their dosing schedule: rapid dose titration (2-mg increments at intervals of 1 to 2 weeks) and slow dose titration (2-mg increments at intervals of at least 3 weeks). Seizure frequency and adverse events were analyzed over 3 months.ResultsAdverse events were reported by 47 (58%) of the 81 patients analyzed, with 12 (15%) patients discontinuing perampanel due to adverse events. Common adverse events included dizziness (n=30, 37%), aggressive mood and behavior (n=19, 24%), gait disturbance (n=16, 20%), and sleep problems (n=10, 12.4%). The overall adverse events were similar in the slow-titration group (38 of 61 patients) and the rapid-titration group (8 of 20 patients, p=0.081). However, none of the 20 patients in the slow-titration group experienced gait disturbance, compared with 16 of the 61 patients in the rapid-titration group (p=0.009), while appetite change was experienced by 4 patients in the slow-titration group but only 1 in the rapid-titration group (p=0.003). No relationship was noted between adverse events and the maximum dose of perampanel (p=0.116). Sex differences were observed, with the response to perampanel being better and the rate of adverse events being higher in females (p=0.015 and p=0.046, respectively).ConclusionsSlow titration of perampanel may reduce perampanel-related adverse events.

The Study of Effect of Amphetamine on Passive Avoidance Learning in Wistar Male Rats

Methamphetamine is sometimes prescribed by doctors for specific diseases that with the entering the central nervous system caused by a sudden release of categulamine and particularly dopamine in the brain. It stimulates brain cells, enhancing aggressive mood and increased body movement. The purpose of this study was to investigate, has been the effects of methamphetamine on passive avoidance learning and memory in adult male Wistar rats. Male Wistar rats of rats in the weight range (180-220gr) (N=6) was Divided into healthy group - control group (saline received) and dose received groups (1.5, 3, 5 mg/kg). Half an hour before the test, intraperitoneally injection was done and after the test, every day at specific times for long-term memory test for one week Injection was done. Results have shown that the incidence of passive avoidance between healthy and control groups there was no significant difference but there is a significantly decreased between the control group and the group receiving methamphetamine. Increase learning and short-term memory and reduced long term memory and passive avoidance learning mechanism is probably due to the involvement of the hippocampus in learning and memory consolidation and short term memory convert to long-term memory could potential mechanism of methamphetamine-induced damage to hippocampal neurons, particularly CA1 neurons. Meanwhile, short-term memory-enhancing effects of methamphetamine can result in Increase cortisol is also a short-term strengthens to the memory but in long term it will damage and weaken the memory.

Testosterone administration does not affect men's rejections of low ultimatum game offers or aggressive mood

Correlative evidence suggests that testosterone promotes dominance and aggression. However, causal evidence is scarce and offers mixed results. To investigate this relationship, we administered testosterone for 48h to 41 healthy young adult men in a within-subjects, double-blind placebo-controlled balanced crossover design. Subjects played the role of responders in an ultimatum game, where rejecting a low offer is costly, but serves to destroy the proposer's profit. Such action can hence be interpreted as non-physical aggression in response to social provocation. In addition, subjects completed a self-assessed mood questionnaire. As expected, self-reported aggressiveness was a key predictor of ultimatum game rejections. However, while testosterone affected subjective ratings of feeling energetic and interested, our evidence strongly suggests that testosterone had no effect on ultimatum game rejections or on aggressive mood. Our findings illustrate the importance of using causal interventions to assess correlative evidence.

Could music potentially serve as a functional alternative to alcohol consumption? The importance of music motives among drinking and non-drinking adolescents.

Background and aims: This study investigated whether adolescents who drink and those who are teetotal differ in the link between music motives and health-related outcomes (life satisfaction, self-rated health, school pressure, somatic complaints, depressed and aggressive mood, physical powerlessness, frequency of being bullied and bullying others and evenings spent out with friends). It also looked at whether associations between music motives and health-related outcomes remained significant when drinking motives were included among drinkers. Methods: Confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation models were estimated based on data from 4,481 adolescents from Switzerland (mean age 14.5, SD = 0.9). Results: It was confirmed that the four music motives and the four drinking motives obtained by crossing the valence (positive–negative) and the source (internal–external) of expected change in affect form distinct dimensions (i.e. the 8-factor model best fitted the data). Drinkers and non-drinkers differed in the various links between music motives and health-related outcomes. For example, almost all the links between conformity music motives and the health-related outcomes were significant for non-drinkers but not for drinkers. Enhancement music motives, by contrast, were often significant for drinkers but not for non-drinkers. Coping music motives were significant among both drinkers and non-drinkers. These links were basically unchanged when drinking motives were taken into account. Discussion and conclusions: This study indicates that music serves important functions in the lives of adolescents, even among those who use alcohol for different motives. This makes listening to music a promising potential alternative to alcohol use.

Twenty-year cytogenetic and molecular follow-up of a patient with ring chromosome 15: a case report

IntroductionRing chromosome 15 is a rare disorder, with only a few over 40 cases reported in the literature. There are only two previous reports of cases where patients with ring chromosome 15 have been followed-up.Case presentationWe report here on the 20-year clinical and cytogenetic follow-up of a patient with a ring chromosome 15. Our patient, a Caucasoid Asian woman, presented with short stature, microcephaly, minor dysmorphic features, hyperextensible knees, generalized hirsutism, café-au-lait and small hypochromic spots spread over her face and the front of her chest and abdomen, dorsolumbar scoliosis and mild intellectual disability. She was followed-up from the age of eight to 28 years. When she was 27 years old, she was reported by her mother to present with compulsive overeating and an aggressive mood when challenged. Karyotyping revealed that the majority of her cells harbored one normal chromosome and one ring chromosome. Silver staining revealed the presence of the nucleolar organizer region in the ring chromosome. Ring loss and/or secondary aberrations exhibited a slight increase over time, from 4.67% in 1989 to 7.67% in 2009, with the presence of two monocentric rings, cells with interlocked rings, a dicentric ring, and broken or open rings. A genome-wide array technique detected a 5.5Mb deletion in 15q26.2.ConclusionsWe observed that some phenotypic alterations in our patient can be associated with gene loss and haploinsufficiency. Other features may be related to different factors, including ring instability and epigenetic factors.

갈등관리시스템 적용과 심리적 해결기제 방안

본 연구는 갈등과정의 갈등관리 환경과 심리적 해결기제를 제시하는데 목적이 있다. 연구 내용은 갈등관리 환경적 측면과 심리적 해결기제 두가지로 구분하여 제시하고 있다. 갈등관리 환경은 시스템측면과 심리적측면으로 나누어 적용되었다. 시스템 측면은 물리적 환경을 위주로 제시를 했다. 심리적 측면은 갈등관리의 심리적 대응유형으로 나누어 제시하였으며, 심리적 해결기제와 밀접한 연관을 두어 제시하였다. 이러한 기준을 하남시화장장, 부천시화장장사례에 적용시켜 연구를 수행하였다. 갈등과정은 갈등형성, 고조, 위기, 확대, 전화단계로 구분하여 단계별로 개별 적용하여 살펴보았다. 부천시와 하남시의 단계별 비교 분석을 통해 차이점과 유사성을 구분하여 효율적인 갈등관리 및 문제점을 도출하였다. 큰 맥락에서 보면 하남시가 부천시에 비하여 갈등관리적인 측면에서 보다 효율적인 관리가 이루어진 것으로 나타나고 있다. 이러한 차이는 갈등관리환경적 측면의 차이를 고려하여야 하며, 인상관리의 차이는 이러한 환경적 맥락아래서 설명하고 있다. 갈등관리 환경을 중심으로 보면 두 사례 모두 갈등양상이 심화될 정도의 원인으로 제시되고 있으나, 심리적 갈등관리 측면에서는 하남시가 부천시보다 적극적이고, 갈등해결적인 자세로 나타났다. In conclusion, the systemic environment was shown that negative environment was being created to deepen conflict, and the conflict processes could be changed in either positive or negative directions by the psychological environment and psychological resolution mechanisms proposed afterward. As the result that the psychological environment was improved into aggressive mood with constant communication effort with the interested parties, the psychological resolution mechanism was also presented in the suitable forms of aggressive communication. On the contrary, if developed psychologically negative environment, the psychological resolution mechanism was also negatively affecting the conflict processes with dogmatic and consistent response rather than flexible response suitable to the situations.

Pre‐adolescent gender differences in associations between temperament, coping, and mood

Relationships between temperament, coping, depressive and aggressive mood in 8-12-year-old boys (n = 185) and girls (n = 219) were investigated, with a focus on gender differences. Children completed two self-report questionnaires: the Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire-Revised and Children's Coping Strategies Checklist-Revised1. Comparing boys and girls on three temperament dimensions, positive affectivity, negative affectivity and effortful control, girls scored higher than boys on the first two dimensions. Girls also scored higher than boys on avoidant coping and depressive mood. For both boys and girls, aggressive and depressive mood were predicted by negative affectivity. Coping did not add towards this prediction. Gender specific models of temperament, coping and depressive mood were tested. For girls, both effortful control and active problem solving, accounted for the variability in depressive mood. For boys, only effortful control accounted for variance in depressive mood. Results showed that gender specific vulnerability to depression in girls is apparent before adolescence and can be linked to temperament and coping.

Presence Related Formal Aspects of Hedonic Valence in Mood Management: An Investigation of the Impact of Mediated Experiences on Induced Aggressive Mood

This paper lays out presence related formal aspects of media offerings suited to evoke mood management (Zillmann, 1988). Zillmann proposes that apart from other dimensions, the mood-impacting characteristics of media stimuli vary with the hedonic valence referring to the content (see also Knobloch-Westerwick, 2006). In this contribution, it is claimed that not only does the hedonic value vary with content, but also with formal characteristics of stimuli that refer to different types of media. In contrast to other investigations on mood management, these investigations focus on the reduction of aversive moods when exposed to certain media offerings. The investigations do not focus on the measurement of selected stimuli arrangements in terms of time and intensity. To test this hypothesis, the current paper presents the results of two studies in which 66 participants were presented with film sequences in order to induce aggressive moods. In the first experiment, which served as a treatment check, it was shown that aggressive moods could be reduced more with televised exposures than with a waiting period. In a second experiment, participants having partaken in the experimental induction of aggressive moods were allocated to different experimental conditions that are classified according to formal aspects of hedonic valence: a television exposure condition, an internet surfing condition, and a chat condition. These activities can be numerically classified according to three axes, (i) the amount of sensory information, (ii) the extent of possible interactions, and (iii) the synchrony between sender and recipient. The resulting categorizations of certain media offerings (television exposure: 3, internet surfing: 9–11, and chatting: 8) simultaneously represent certain aspects of the concept of presence. Results show that the induced aggressive moods can be mostly reduced by the treatment (media offerings) with the highest number allocated (internet surfing). Moreover, the findings show an overall decrease of aggressive moods according to the increasing number from television to internet.

Ethnic and gender differences in temperament, and the relationship between temperament and Depressive and Aggressive mood

Temperamental differences and the relationship between temperament and Depressive and Aggressive mood were investigated in a sample of 423 9–13-year-old Dutch children from four different ethnic/national backgrounds. A temperament questionnaire was used, specifically constructed to ensure measurement equivalence across the Dutch, Turkish, Moroccan and mixed ethnic samples and across gender. We found temperament differences between the Dutch children and the other ethnic groups for Negative Affectivity and Effortful Control. Gender differences were found which were not influenced by ethnicity. Girls scored higher than boys on the Positive Affectivity scale. Temperament, especially the dimensions Negative Affectivity and Effortful Control, proved strongly predictive of both Depressive and Aggressive mood in all ethnic groups. Positive Affectivity contributed positively to Depressive mood and showed an interaction effect with Negative Affectivity. We discussed the consequences of our findings for the tripartite model of depression.

An investigation into the sub-acute effects of ecstasy on aggressive interpretative bias and aggressive mood – are there gender differences?

The lowering of serotonin for a period following MDMA use could account for the increases in both self-rated and objective measures of aggression previously found in ecstasy users several days after taking the drug. There is some evidence of gender differences in the acute, sub-acute and long-term effects of MDMA use, and given that gender differences have been found in aggression, it is possible that men may experience more aggression mid-week than women. The aim of this study was to attempt to replicate findings showing increased bias towards aggressive material in ecstasy users several days after using the drug. In addition, to investigate possible gender differences in mid-week aggression. A total of 46 participants were tested: 19 ecstasy users and 27 controls were compared on the night of drug use and 4 days later. On day 4, a task designed to tap cognitive bias toward material with aggressive content was administered. Participants were required to process sentences that could be interpreted as either aggressive or neutral and subsequently remember them in a recognition test. This data set was then combined with the data from Curran et al.'s (2004) study that employed exactly the same procedure. Thus, the data from 107 participants was analysed to investigate gender differences. Ecstasy users recognized more aggressive sentences than controls and tended to react slower to neutral sentences than controls. Ecstasy users also rated themselves as being more aggressive and depressed than controls on day 4. No gender differences were found on any measure of aggression in the combined data set. Both male and female ecstasy users show a bias toward interpretation of ambiguous material in an aggressive manner when compared to controls 4 days after ecstasy use.

Does drinking have effects on mood and cognition in male and female students?

Self-ratings of mood and bodily symptoms were made by groups of IQ and education-matched male and female students [teetotal, low (2–9 units/week for both sexes; 1 UK unit=8 g alcohol) and moderate (12–34 units/week for males; 10–24 units/week for females) drinkers], before the start and at the end of cognitive testing. Multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) showed that there were significant Alcohol×Time interactions, because the teetotal group responded to the cognitive tests with greater increases in the factors of somatic anxiety and aggressive mood than did the other two groups. Thus, the teetotallers had greater ratings of anxiety, sweating, palpitations, irritability, headache, feeling angry, quarrelsome, belligerent, resentful, hostile, spiteful and rebellious. No differences were found in immediate or delayed logical memory, in verbal fluency, trails, clock-drawing or mental flexibility tests. In tests of sustained attention [rapid visual information processing (RVIP)] and planning, males performed better than females. The moderate-alcohol group performed better than the low-alcohol group in RVIP and planning (completed significantly more tasks in the minimum moves), although in the hardest parts of the latter test, they took longer in planning the initial move. In conclusion, there was no evidence that the group drinking moderate levels of alcohol had any cognitive impairment and the teetotal group responded to the cognitive tests with the greatest increases in negative mood.

Mood changes after cognitive testing in late middle-age: impacts of sex and habitual alcohol consumption

Men and women (50–67 years) completed drinking diaries and, on the basis of this, were divided into low (<2 units/day, 1 UK unit=8 g alcohol) and moderate (2–5 units/day) alcohol groups. They completed analogue rating scales of mood and bodily symptoms before and after two extended computerised cognitive tests. After the tests, the women showed significantly greater increases in self-ratings on the factors of anxiety and discontentment and felt significantly less alert than did the men. They also showed significantly greater increases in bodily symptoms of somatic anxiety and ratings of aggressive mood than did the men. There were no significant effects of alcohol or Sex×Alcohol interactions on the self-ratings, but the men showed significant positive correlations of alcohol and negative mood. On both the cognitive tests, there were significant Sex×Alcohol interactions because the moderate-drinking men performed worse than the low-drinking men, whereas the moderate-drinking women performed better than the low-drinking women. Thus, the middle-aged women responded much more than did the men with negative mood changes to the psychological stress of cognitive testing, although their cognitive performance was not worse.

Mood Changes following Acute Tryptophan Depletion in Healthy Adults

A decrease in central serotonergic activity following plasma tryptophan depletion has been shown to provoke a deterioration of mood. We studied the impact of sex and aggressive traits on mood changes following tryptophan depletion in healthy volunteers. Twelve healthy subjects (6 males, 6 females, 24–31 years), who were screened for psychiatric and non-psychiatric medical illness, were administered a tryptophan-depleting amino acid mixture (TD) and a placebo mixture on two different occasions in a double-blind crossover design. Psychometric measures included the preliminary determination of aggressive traits and depression and repeated assessments of mood and emotionality. The tryptophan-free amino acid mixture caused a marked depletion of plasma tryptophan with lowest levels occurring between 3 and 5 h after TD. Maximum changes in mood occurred about 10 h after TD, but only in high-aggressive women who scored significantly higher in arousal, anger and depressed mood, whereas low-aggressive women and men did not show any effect of TD. In addition, we could not confirm an increase in aggressive mood (anger) after TD in males with higher scores of trait aggression, presumably because the level of trait aggression was not high enough in this group. Due to the small sample size, our results that tryptophan depletion exerts a rapid mood-lowering effect on healthy women with pre-existing aggressive traits can only be seen as preliminary and have to be confirmed in further studies with larger samples.

Mood differences between male and female light smokers and nonsmokers

In an open study, we determined whether there were sex differences in the mood ratings of non-deprived light smokers and nonsmokers under baseline conditions and after completing a battery of cognitive tests that were mildly stressful. Male and female students who were light smokers (5–12 cigarettes a day) were tested immediately after smoking their usual cigarette, at a time that they normally smoked. They were compared with a group of male and female students who were nonsmokers and did not differ on age, IQ, personality measures, anxiety or depression. Compared with the nonsmokers, both male and female smokers felt overall significantly more discontented, troubled, tense, quarrelsome, furious, impatient, hostile, annoyed and disgusted and experienced greater dizziness. The performance of distracting cognitive tasks did not reveal anxiolytic effects of smoking, and after performance of these tasks, both smokers and nonsmokers became more discontented and anxious. In addition, after the cognitive testing, both male and female smokers showed greater increases than nonsmokers in feeling spiteful, rebellious, incompetent and in sweating, suggesting that they experienced greater mood changes in response to cognitive stress. There were no overall differences between the smokers and nonsmokers in the performance of divided or sustained attention tasks or in episodic memory. It is unlikely that either nicotine withdrawal or differences in cognitive performance could account for the greater anxiety, discontent and aggressive mood that was found in smokers.

Effects of Violent Versus Nonviolent Video Games on Children's Arousal, Aggressive Mood, and Positive Mood

This study investigated the relationship between violent video games and children's mood. A total of 71 children aged 8 to 12 years played a paper‐and‐pencil game, a nonviolent video game, and a violent video game. Results indicate that arousal, as measured by heart rate and self‐reported arousal, increased significantly after playing the violent video game, as compared with the other two game conditions, with girls reporting more arousal than did boys. There was no significant increase in aggressive mood scores for either boys or girls after playing the violent game. Positive mood, as measured by positive affect, showed no significant increases or decreases after playing either video game. However, positive mood, as measured by general mood, showed a significant increase after playing the violent game for both boys and girls, but only as compared with the paper‐and‐pencil game. Results are interpreted in terms of social learning and cognitive information processing theories of aggression.