Indigenous African Languages Research Articles

Investigating the Transparency of Language for Place Value Understanding: Comparing Indigenous Southern African Languages and European-based Languages

In this article we investigate the transparency of language in learning place value in either a Southern African indigenous language (isiXhosa, Setswana, Oshiwambo or Emakhuwa) or a European-based language (Afrikaans, English, German or Portuguese). Since language is a key mediator in developing place value understanding, it is important to investigate the ways in which the transparency of various languages may impact place value learning. A review of pertinent literature and an analysis of literal translations of number words (to thousands) of our eight languages lead us to the conclusion that Southern African indigenous languages are more accessible in their meaning, in relation to place value, than the four European-based languages spoken in Southern Africa, which we analysed. We identified two key advantages in the indigenous languages: (i) there was transparency of the ‘places’ in how numbers are named; and (ii) there was logical alignment between the spoken and symbolic representation of numbers. Despite this, many Southern African learners learn mathematics in English, Afrikaans or Portuguese even though this is not their home language (L1). This means that many learners are denied access to the transparency of the place value concepts that exist in their L1 and must manage learning place value, not only in a yet to be learned ‘foreign’ language, but also in one where they must learn to decode the idiosyncratic ‘irregularities’ of the way those languages name numbers. We conclude this article by discussing the implications of these findings for the teaching of place value in Southern African classrooms, in which indigenous learners are often learning in a European-based language that is not their L1.

Reduplication and the IsiZulu novel: A morpho-stylistic critique

While reduplication qualifies as a pure linguistic entity, little has been done to investigate this aspect in the context of literary works. This article thus seeks to attempt to close this gap by exploring a linguistic stylistic analysis of reduplication with reference to the isiZulu novel. The main aim of this is to blend and harmonise literary criticism and linguistics by discussing both the form (linguistic description) and function (literary effects) of reduplication, observing four isiZulu novels as primary data. This suggests that the study uses textual analysis as a qualitative research technique. Linguistic stylistics is proposed as the theoretical framework to validate and ground the findings. This theory is seen as suitable as it considers both form and function of language. Reduplication with reference to the selected novels is discussed through the following linguistic sets: complete reduplication and incomplete reduplication. Within these descriptive sets, the literary findings reveal that reduplication is used to emphasise the recurring nature of actions as reflected in the novels. This plays a significant role in the creation of vivid effects when the text is read.Contribution: This study is significant because it provides a different way of examining style in the African indigenous languages’ novel genre. This genre has been approached from different perspectives, but there seem to be limited perspectives that opt for approaches that lean on descriptive linguistics. The study is thus believed to be valuable to the study of African indigenous languages of South Africa, as it demonstrates that a linguistic approach to literature can aid analysis and understanding of the novel genre. Using reduplication as a reference point, the study seeks to demonstrate that linguistics and literary criticism can co-exist and operate in harmony.

Indigenous languages as predictors of understanding and accepting COVID-19 vaccines in Nigeria and South Africa

Indigenous African languages have often suffered neglect in health development campaigns until recently. Considering the multi-faceted effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on different peoples and societies worldwide, this article argues that vaccine campaigns in African settings cannot be impactful if they are not disseminated in the indigenous African languages. The article is hinged on Salawu’s model of indigenous language for development communication, which affirms the connection between language of communication and people’s understanding of the message communicated. The study employed a survey experimental research method. Using the pool sampling technique, both online and offline questionnaires were used to survey the opinions of 191 Nigerian and 114 South African respondents in Lagos and Mafikeng, respectively, about dominant indigenous languages used for COVID-19 vaccine messages, their degree of understanding vaccine messages and their acceptance or rejection of the vaccine messages. Interview sessions were conducted with five purposively selected health communication and media experts to determine the significance of and challenges encountered in the use of indigenous African languages for COVID-19 vaccine campaigns. The quantitative data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical tools, such as frequency count and percentage, chi-square, percentile and logistic regression; while the qualitative data were thematically analysed. While respondents mostly identified with messages in Yoruba, Igbo, Setswana and isiZulu, a few respondents identified with a combination of languages, although these languages did not influence their acceptance of vaccines.

Promoting the Use of African Indigenous Languages among the Youth in Kenya: An Argument for E-Inclusivity

This paper looks at the use of African indigenous languages in social media as a positive mechanism to decolonise the Internet. Specifically, the study analysed the use of Gikuyu language as an indigenous language to establish whether Kenyan youths use indigenous languages on social media platforms, with an aim of highlighting the need to promote African languages on social media as a means to decolonise the Internet. The case-based study used a mixed-method research design. Using purposive sampling, the study employed focus group discussions to gather qualitative data, while employing stratified sampling to conduct a survey using a questionnaire for quantitative data. Random sampling was used to identify 300 high school participants aged between 15 and 25 years in a public school in rural Kenya. Using Herman Batibo’s African Linguistic Dynamism Theory to capture the diversity and dynamism in language use and Blumler and Katz’s Uses and Gratifications Theory to account for the strategic use of language to meet one’s needs, the study found that Gikuyu language is rarely used by the youth on social media. This prompts the need to promote the use of African languages through policy, electronic media, publishing of fictional books and adoption of youth speaks fora.

Mother Tongue Interference and Its Effects: A Case Study of a Selected Secondary School in Matabeleland South in Zimbabwe

The study was conducted in a selected secondary school in Matabeleland South Province of Zimbabwe where the problem of mother tongue interference on the teaching and learning involving African indigenous languages was detected. The inquiry adopted a qualitative paradigm while interviews and observations were data gathering instruments. The population comprised the Head of Department (HOD), IsiNdebele teachers and learners. The sample consisted of an HOD, two IsiNdebele teachers and forty form one and form two learners altogether. Collected data were thematically presented, discussed and analysed. Revealed in the study was that mother tongue interference is inevitable and has negative and positive effects. Although mother tongue interference is perceived negatively, its importance in education is that it provides the basis for acquiring of the target language. Hence, this spontaneous featuring should not be perceived as interference. Instead, it should be used to consolidate the acquisition of concepts in the target language.

A Syntactic—Stylistic Critique of Interjections & Ideophones with Reference to the IsiZulu Novel

Through the lenses of descriptive linguistics, interjections and ideophones are usually analysed separately from literature in the South African indigenous languages. Nothing much has been done so far to investigate these aspects through descriptive linguistics in context to literature. By investigating the syntactic features of interjections and ideophones, with reference to the IsiZulu novel genre, this paper seeks to harmonise literary criticism and linguistics. This study is theoretically and broadly grounded on linguistic stylistics, and it adopts Ngara’s linguistic proper format as the main theoretical base. With the analysis of four novels namely, Kungasa Ngifile, Ngidedele Ngife, Ngiyolibala Ngifile, and Inkululeko Engakhululekile, as primary sources, the study is done qualitatively through textual analysis. The findings of the study demonstrate that literary criticism and linguistics can co-exist even with reference to the isiZulu language as a case study. While interjections are discussed under the syntactic properties of them as complete sentences and auxiliaries in sentences, ideophones are discussed under the following sub – headings: Ideophones used with finite verbs, ideophones used with the verb stem -thi, and ideophones used independently. It is through these syntactic properties that the artistic or stylistic significance of interjections and ideophones in the novels are also demonstrated. Such an approach covers both the form (linguistic description) and function (literary significance) of interjections and ideophones.

Tongue-tied: Language-based exclusion at a South African university

The post-apartheid government in South Africa adopted a multilingual education policy to provide education in learners' home languages as a foundation for learning while promoting proficiency in at least two additional official languages. This marked a paradigm shift from the apartheid regime, which was characterised by racial segregation and discrimination, prioritising Afrikaans and English at the expense of indigenous African languages. Although widely celebrated, achieving the multilingual promise ushered in by the democratic dispensation remains a challenge for post-apartheid South African higher education. This study explored students' experiences of language-based discrimination at a selected South African university. Using a qualitative approach, data were collected from 20 purposively sampled final-year students through an open-ended questionnaire that was distributed electronically to students in the Education faculty and analysed thematically. The findings revealed that minority language speakers grappled with feelings of invisibility, alienation, frustration, and exclusion in their academic and social lives, making it difficult for them to engage fully in university life. Various coping mechanisms were also reported, demonstrating the agency of these minority groups; however, these were found to be insufficient. The study thus recommended prioritising inclusive language policies and training that foster lingua-cultural empathy among students and staff, among other things.

Examining Translators’ Experiences in Translating Grade 4 Geography Concepts from English to Tshivenḓa

Translation of educational materials from English into indigenous African languages such as Tshivenḓa presents significant challenges, particularly concerning non-equivalence and cultural disparities. This qualitative study examines translators’ experiences in translating Grade 4 Geography concepts from English to Tshivenḓa. Anchored by Skopos theory and the scan and balance framework, the research adopts an interpretivist paradigm and a phenomenological design. Five expert translators participated and were selected through purposive sampling. Data collection included translation tasks and semi-structured interviews, which were analysed using thematic and inductive analysis. The findings reveal pervasive cultural and terminological challenges stemming from differences between English and Tshivenḓa, compounded by insufficient resources and time-intensive translation processes. The translators navigated these challenges with adaptive problem-solving approaches like using dictionaries, internet searches, and consultations with experts, as well as by achieving equivalence through translation strategies such as paraphrasing, cultural substitution, loan words, general words, and coining, guided by systematic strategy selection based on the intended purposes of the translations. This study contributes to the understanding of the nuanced dynamics of translation in educational contexts, highlighting the need for improved resources and collaborative efforts among translators. By enhancing translation practices in indigenous languages, this research endeavours to support better educational outcomes and preserve linguistic diversity.

The Politics of Memory: NLP Models as Liberating Artifacts

The main argument of this article is that natural language processing (NLP) projects of Indigenous African languages can be understood as an effort to restore and preserve Africa’s memory in the digital. Language has always occupied a particular place in the African decolonial imaginary. Several African states embarked on processes of Africanisation of postcolonial institutions in their respective national contexts. One of the main features of this project in many African countries was the restoration of African languages in education and public service. Taking a social constructivist approach rooted in science and technology studies and looking through the analytical lens of decoloniality in Africa, I conceptualise NLP models of Indigenous African languages as liberating artifacts. I mobilise decolonial theory to look at language as a technology that can be used to dis-member and re-member the African subjects of their memory of being as people. The coloniser erased the memory of the African subjugated by cutting off their linguistic connections and instead planted the European memory. From this perspective, decolonisation can be understood as a process of re-memberment that can be achieved through the return of the languages of those whose humanity has been denied or questioned. In this sense, NLP projects offer instances of the digital that represent spaces of restoration and negotiated digital futurities. I contend that these digital spaces in Africa are social spaces of contestation about what common investments should be made, what collective futures are desirable and what are the perceived material consequences of such shared imaginations.

South African indigenous languages in teaching and learning: policies and the threat of cultural genocide

South Africa is a multilingual country with 10 indigenous, English, and Sign Language as official languages. Before 1994, only English and Afrikaans were used as languages of learning and teaching (LOLTs) at all educational levels. Indigenous African languages were only used as LOLTs to Grade 3. 1994 led to new expectations regarding the use and development of indigenous languages as LOLTs. Government seemingly intends to eventually make English the only LOLT at school and higher education levels. Concerns have surfaced regarding the possible ‘murder’ of indigenous languages and the violation of people’s human rights through language policy implementation. An education law and policy lens was mostly used to examine issues. I wrote the article as a critical analysis of extant literature and used Skutnabb-Kangas and Phillipson’s (1994) concept of linguicism as the theoretical basis of my examination of data. It led to my conclusion that the emergence of English as the juggernaut language in education could probably lead to the revival of colonization, the assimilation (or ‘destruction’) of indigenous languages, and ‘cultural genocide’ called multilingualism. McIlwraith’s (2014) letter of advice to language and development leaders after a 2013 international language conference in South Africa and cited in the conclusion of the article still provides a fitting conclusion resonating with the content of the article.

Decolonising education in institutions of higher learning

To date, the South African education is still grounded and dominated by the colonial and apartheid driven epistemes. This resulted from the type of knowledge and textbooks used in learning institutions that are still of Eurocetric origin and created societal hierarchies. In the process, African indigenous languages were excluded while alien languages were promoted in teaching and learning. It necessitates higher education institutions (HEI) to decolonise education in ways that encourage and acknowledge African perspectives and its values in pedagogical practices. Discussions on the decolonisation of HE emanated from protests in 2015-2016 and in the post-apartheid era. However, gaps still exist in the development of content that caters for the African context and the debate about decolonisation of education is still not fully discussed with confidence. Google Scholar database was utilised to source the relevant literature, where substantial content in peer reviewed articles, books, government documents and news were accessed, retrieved and reviewed. Using this method, the authors attempt to discuss what decolonisation entails and how HEI can reform the curriculum in ways that will make it inclusive with the acknowledgement and the use of African languages in teaching and learning. The article also discusses the support and training needed in the implementation of decolonisation and the use of multilingualism in pedagogical practices.

Translanguaging as a decolonial pedagogic strategy for South African universities

This article explores the persistent challenges posed by colonial pedagogies in South African universities, with a specific focus on the University of Cape Town (UCT). The imposition of colonial languages such as English and Afrikaans in South African universities has perpetuated a linguistic hierarchy wherein these two languages dominate, sidelining the indigenous African languages. Despite democratic changes in 1994, the continued dominance of the two colonial languages in teaching and learning reinforces a coloniality of language, knowledge, and power. In response to this, the article advocates for translanguaging as a decolonial pedagogy to disrupt existing power dynamics and promote linguistic inclusivity and justice in teaching and learning. The concept of translanguaging is introduced, and its potential as a transformative pedagogy for leveraging multilingual competence among students is explored. The article contends that translanguaging introduces a decolonial framework for learning and teaching for multilingual and multicultural students. An example from the University of Cape Town (UCT) is provided to demonstrate how translanguaging pedagogy can serve as a decolonial pedagogic strategy in the classroom. Methodologically, the study employed linguistic ethnography techniques to gather data. The data analysis illustrates the strategies employed by multilingual students to challenge and navigate the dominance of English academic language through the practice of translanguaging.

An etymologically based lexicographic approach for developing encyclopaedic pedagogical dictionaries in African languages

Bilingual dictionaries in previously marginalised indigenous African languages often provide lemmata equivalents without definitions as is the nature of most bilingual dictionaries. The structure of bilingual dictionaries needs to be improved to include definitions and etymological information. To this end, this paper investigates how bilingual dictionaries can be enhanced through a qualitative content analysis of lemmata from the Scholar’s IsiZulu Dictionary by G.R Dent and C.L.S. Nyembezi (2009). A simple random sampling strategy was employed to select subject-specific lemmata that would contribute to the data analysed for the study. The microstructure of the resource was analysed using the Theory of Lexicographic Functions (Bergenholzt & Tarp, 2003) which considers the user profile, user needs, user situation, and lexicographic function. The element of user needs from this theory was used for this study, postulating that etymological data can enhance the acquisition of epistemological knowledge of users who speak African languages. This study revealed that an etymology-based dictionary structure does not only clarify scientific terminology to the user but also enhances the intellectual power of languages in education, thus increasing their potential of producing better education outcomes for students.

Revisiting the Challenges of Teaching and Learning Indigenous South African Languages

Whereas South Africa has made significant strides after the official end of colonialism and apartheid in 1994 concerning the advancement of indigenous South African languages, there are observable challenges that demonstrate endurance even in the post-colonial and post-apartheid contexts. In particular, there are enduring challenges in the teaching and learning of these languages within the basic and higher education system. With this view in mind, the aim herein is to explore and discuss four noteworthy challenges that obstruct the optimal teaching and learning of indigenous languages in the South African context. It must be noted that this article concentrates on indigenous South African languages in general, and not specific ones. The objective is to uncover and sensitize the language and education policymakers as well as affected stakeholders such as parents, learners, and students that challenges in the context of language in education exhibit determination, hence the necessity to scholarly revisit them in a bid to solicit reasonable solutions to the conundrum. The four noteworthy challenges, which are discussed in the body of this scholarly discourse, are recognized as a source of discussion. The findings and discussion underline that challenges within the language in education in the South African context are multifaceted. One of these challenges could be pinned on colonial and apartheid legacies that appraised oppressive languages to the detriment of indigenous South African languages and dialects. In fact, the Bantu Education Act of 1953 is implicated in this article as one of the principal drivers of the subjugation of these languages. In the same vein, this article implicates some post-colonial and post-apartheid perceptions towards the subjugation of these vernacular languages. The closing remarks highlight the necessity to recurrently debate challenges of indigenous languages within the educational system.

Challenges in Intellectualizing Sesotho for Use in Academic Publications

This paper explores challenges in intellectualizing Sesotho for academic works beyond literary-based theses. It also overviews resources for the intellectualization of official Indigenous languages of South Africa, focusing on national translation projects for terminology development. Furthermore, it highlights efforts by the South African Centre for Digital Language Resources in creating and collecting corpora for all official languages, including Sesotho. Challenges in Sesotho lexicography, especially with corpus-based approaches, are discussed. Additionally, the paper reflects on the authors' experiences with publishing academic articles in Sesotho in South African journals. It discusses obstacles faced, and strategies employed, including dialogues with reviewers on creating new terms and choosing between Lesothan Sesotho and South African Sesotho orthographies. Finally, the essay addresses challenges posed by limited publication avenues for indigenous languages in southern Africa and academic pressures for citations and research impact. It aims to shed light on lesser-known Indigenous languages in Southern Africa by spotlighting challenges and solutions to academic publications in Sesotho. Overall, the paper concludes that efforts at intellectualizing Sesotho and other South African indigenous languages are evident. Even so, there is far less emphasis on using Sesotho and other indigenous languages for academic discourses.

Africa’s lingua franca and its role in the successful implementation of the AfCFTA: a case for Kiswahili as the African commerce and epistemological language

The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) is the largest free trade agreement in the world in terms of its membership and it has tremendous potential to lift millions of Africans out of poverty through boosting intra-Africa trade by ensuring that Africa has one gigantic market of over 1.3 billion people. For this to be achieved, this trade agreement must be implemented rapidly and to the letter. This article therefore argues that, among others, the use and adoption of an African indigenous language such as Kiswahili can play an important role in enabling Africans to trade with one another with ease and mutual trust. The adoption and use of this language as a potential lingua franca for commerce and teaching and learning also has the potential to harness the innovation and creativity of Africans as this would be emanating from the age-old ingenuity of our forebears. The main argument made here is that language is both the reservoir and vessel for culture and indigenous knowledge systems (IKS), and without its maximum exploitation, our societies will not industrialise and develop. Methodologically, qualitative semi-open-ended interviews and non-participant observation were conducted in Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa to gauge experts’ views on the utility of Kiswahili as a potential Pan-African language. Pan-Africanism and Afrocentricity are key theories deployed in giving shape to this study.

English as a language of preference in mathematics learning: perspectives from high school learners in township contexts

The exploration of language preference among mathematics learners in multilingual contexts remains a significant area of study. The aim of this study is to identify the most effective linguistic tools that contribute to the academic achievement of secondary school learners in mathematics. This study specifically examines English as a preferred language for mathematics instruction among high school learners in a Soshanguve community in the Tshwane West District of South Africa. It investigates the attitudes of mathematics learners towards the use of English as the medium of instruction and the reasons for their preference for learning mathematics in English. The study uses a non-experimental quantitative descriptive survey with a sample of 101 high school mathematics learners. Data was collected using a self-administered survey questionnaire conducted on paper. The primary data was analysed using descriptive statistics. The results indicate that English is the preferred language for learning mathematics. The study also demonstrates that the inclination towards the English language among high school learners is driven by factors such as pedagogical, social, linguistic competence, and economic considerations. The research findings suggest that the use of English as the medium of instruction is crucial for the acquisition and achievement of mathematics skills. This is because learners' indigenous African languages are inadequate as a medium of instruction in mathe­matics classroom conversations among high school learners. Therefore, it is recommended that the Department of Basic Education and mathematics educators should enhance learners' English language competence by implementing intense and enriched language programmes.

Towards the Intellectualisation of Indigenous African Languages Through University Language Policies in South Africa

Although the use of African languages as Languages of Teaching and Learning (LoTLs) at various academic levels and in various fields of knowledge has been gaining momentum, it is yet to be effectively implemented in some South African universities. Failure to implement the use of African languages as LoTLs has often been attributed to their lack of intellectualisation. Deploying Ruiz’s notion of language as a resource, this paper conducts a comparative analysis of language policies of two South African universities to establish how they enable the intellectualisation of indigenous African languages. Through a content analysis of the two universities’ recently revised language policies, the paper discusses the respective institutions’ commitment to the cause of language intellectualisation concerning African languages that have been selected for development as LoTLs. Universities that seek to implement the use of African languages as LoTLs need to come up with language policies that explicitly spell out their intellectualisation plans. The paper further argues that universities need not focus on language status planning only, but also on corpus planning to successfully implement the use of African languages as LoTLs.

Influence of an African Indigenous Language on Classroom Interactions and Discourses

This qualitative interpretative case study aimed to investigate how the developed isiNdebele scientific language register for Natural Sciences influences learners’ classroom interactions and discourses. Data were collected from stakeholders through interviews and observations. The results indicated that the use of African indigenous languages positively shapes learners’ classroom interactions and discourses. Specifically, when learners were taught Natural Sciences using the isiNdebele register, there was maximum interaction in the classroom in contrast to using the English register, where learners were passive for most of the lesson. This highlights the need for developing scientific registers in African indigenous languages. Therefore, it is recommended that these registers be integrated into teaching and learning as they positively influence interactions and discourses, leading to meaningful learning and better performance.

Mother tongue instructions as a human right

The paper aimed at studying the challenges as well as the potential benefits associated with using African languages as the main medium of instructions in Namibian schools. Research indicates that there is more to gain in promoting African languages in all aspects of education and governance than the opposite. Countries that place greater emphasis on mother tongue instructions continue to thrive socially and economically. Countries such as China, Japan, South Korea, are some of the Asian countries who were once dominated by Europeans who opted for investing in their languages and are thriving economically. The results of the research indicates that the sole use of English language as the main medium of instruction in schools is the reason for high failure rates in grade 10 and 12 final examinations. Due to lack of enthusiasm from the government regarding the use of indigenous African languages as M.O.I , many teachers and students alike still prefer English to be the main medium of instruction in schools at the expense of their own languages. The government should revise its education policy on language instruction and put more emphasis on the need to robustly use indigenous African languages with English in all schools.