African American Parents Research Articles

“Ain’t I Got a Right to the Tree of Life?”: Examining Special Education through the Application of Afro-Humanity

In this manuscript we chart the intersection of dis/ability and Afro-humanity. We propose that Afro-humanity is a contextual paradigm within African-centred ideology that can be applied to explore the ways in which disability may be perceived differently when applying a specific, cultural philosophical lens. We also explore the process of decolonization, whereby African American parents, with a child identified with an intellectual disability, reorient themselves to a way of thinking that is more emancipatory. The parents act in a way that challenge concepts about human cognitive variance and notions of dis/ability in school settings. Drawing on such a model as Afro-humanity, we argue for a more equitable approach to community and educational engagement for Black students labelled with dis/abilities.

Child’s Developmental Disabilities and Parental Well-being in Midlife and Old Age: Does Race Matter?

Having a child with developmental disabilities (DD) compromises parents’ health and well-being. We have little knowledge on whether the association is robust to the presence of exposure-outcome confounders and how it varies by race. Guided by life-course perspectives, we evaluate (1) the association between having a child with DD and parental well-being and (2) racial disparities in the likelihood of having a child with DD (differential exposure), and/or the effect of having a child with DD on parental well-being (differential vulnerabilities). We advance prior studies by including a wide array of parent’s early-life adversities (ELAs, e.g., poverty and abuse), which may link the predictor to the outcome. Using the core, Refresher, and Milwaukee samples from Midlife in the United States (N=9,640, 25% non-Whites), we conducted regression analysis with race as a moderator. Compared to having a healthy child, parents having a child with DD reported lower well-being even after controlling for ELAs. While the likelihood of having a child with DD (around 10%) is similar for both non-Hispanic Whites and African Americans, African American parents are more adversely affected by having a child with DD across most of the eudaimonic well-being indicators (i.e., autonomy, self-acceptance, positive relationships with others, personal growth, environmental mastery). The later-life well-being of racial minorities is disproportionally affected by having a child with DD. Future research avenues include identifying life-course pathways that contribute to this differential vulnerability.

Racial and Ethnic Differences in Parental Attitudes and Concerns About School Reopening During the COVID-19 Pandemic - United States, July 2020.

In light of the disproportionate risk of hospitalization and death attributable to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) among racial and ethnic minority groups, parental attitudes and concerns regarding school reopening were assessed by race and ethnicity using data from three online CARAVAN omnibus surveys conducted during July 8-12, 2020, by ENGINE Insights.* Survey participants included 858 parents who had children and adolescents in kindergarten through grade 12 (school-aged children) living in their household. Overall, 56.5% of parents strongly or somewhat agreed that school should reopen this fall, with some differences by race/ethnicity: compared with 62.3% of non-Hispanic White (White) parents, 46.0% of non-Hispanic Black or African American (Black) parents (p = 0.007) and 50.2% of Hispanic parents (p = 0.014) agreed that school should reopen this fall. Fewer White parents (62.5%) than Hispanic (79.5%, p = 0.026) and non-Hispanic parents of other racial/ethnic groups (66.9%, p = 0.041) were supportive of a mask mandate for students and staff members. Understanding parental attitudes and concerns is critical to informing communication and messaging around COVID-19 mitigation. Families' concerns also highlight the need for flexible education plans and equitable resource provision so that youth education is not compromised.

Moody kids years later: Long-term outcomes of youth from the Omega-3 and therapy (OATS) studies

BackgroundThis naturalistic follow-up study examines outcomes for youth with depression (n = 25) or subsyndromal bipolar disorder (n = 13) 2–5 years after participation in randomized clinical trials (RCTs) of omega-3 fatty acids (Ω3), individual family psychoeducational psychotherapy (IF-PEP), and their combination MethodsForty percent (38/95) of RCT families completed a follow-up assessment ResultsRelapse rates and conversion to bipolar disorder were consistent with published literature. Original treatment assignment did not impact current functioning. Overall, participants’ mood severity, executive functioning, and global functioning continued to be better than at RCT baseline. Depressive symptoms increased significantly from end of RCT. Manic symptom severity, executive functioning, and global functioning remained comparable to end of RCT. The majority of parents and youth reported improved youth emotion regulation skills and family communication. They considered study participation beneficial, with increased understanding of mood disorders being the top reason. Half of youth commenced or continued Ω3 and 58% commenced or continued psychotherapy post-RCT, suggesting some degree of consumer satisfaction; these youth had lower depression severity than other participants. LimitationsOnly 40% returned to this naturalistic follow-up; they were less likely to have an African-American parent, were of higher income, and youth were more symptomatic at end of RCT than those who did not return ConclusionsImprovement from RCT baseline continued although depressive symptom severity increased from end of RCT to follow-up. Meaningful improvements in youth and family functioning persisted 2–5 years later. Interventions that prevent relapse or conversion to BPSD are still needed for these vulnerable populations.

The relationship between neighborhood racial composition and African American parents' racial socialization.

This study assessed the degree to which the racial composition of one's neighborhood was related to the racial socialization messages parents communicated to their children in a sample of 307 African American families. Linear regression analyses were conducted. Neighborhoods were classified as predominantly African American, predominantly European American, or racially integrated. Even after controlling for parents' education, mental health, and family income, parents in predominantly European American and racially integrated neighborhoods gave more preparation for bias messages than those in predominantly African American neighborhoods. Parents of boys conveyed more cultural empowerment messages in racially integrated and predominantly European American neighborhoods than in predominantly African American neighborhoods. Older girls were more likely to receive egalitarian messages than older boys. African American parents may use more empowerment and preparation for bias messages when they feel their children are culturally isolated or likely to experience racial discrimination.

"Always Thinking About Safety": African American Lesbian Mothers' Perceptions of Risk and Well-being.

Although there is a growing body of knowledge focusing on lesbian families and their parenting experiences, African American lesbian mothers are often underrepresented in research. This qualitative exploratory study aims to understand the constructions and perspectives of African American lesbian mothers, from an urban East Coast area, on risk and well-being. Fifteen in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted and analyzed at the end of 2016, coinciding with the presidential election yielding main themes that were significant for the participants pertaining to the mothers' experiences and construction of the challenges and risks to well-being. Main themes first focused on discrimination and insensitivity in everyday spaces; then moved into the effects of political climate on perceived safety and security, conditions and unintended consequences of the coming out process; and ended with strategies for reducing risk. Adoption of an intersectional framework to discuss our findings allowed us to explore the ways in which multiple identities engage to shape experiences and constructions of risk and well-being among African American lesbian parents. The results suggest the importance of context (e.g., political, historical, gender-related, racial) when working with LGBTQ+ families of color.

Still-restrictive equality in shared school governance: Black parents’ engagement experiences and the persistence of white supremacy in a liberal public school district

This paper draws from a critical race multicase study of Black parents’ school engagement experiences in a liberal U.S. public school district, focusing here on 12 mothers and fathers who participated in Parent Teacher Organizations (PTOs) and/or African American parent groups. I apply Critical Race Theory, particularly Crenshaw’s notions of restrictive and expansive views of antidiscrimination law, as a theoretical lens to evaluate the school district’s vision of racial equality in school governance. My analysis indicates that regardless of inclusive practices that welcomed Black parents into parent groups, the district still had restrictive views of equality because Black parents’ ideas and desires were only taken up if they converged with the interests of white parents, and school and district leaders. I offer the theorization of still-restrictive to point to a way white supremacy may still operate in liberal and inclusive-seeming spaces.

Racial disparities in parent knowledge of concussion and recognition of signs and symptoms

Introduction: Concussion is a type of traumatic brain injury that can be sustained through participation in different sports. It is important that a parent be able to identify common and uncommon symptoms of a concussion to ensure the safety and good health of their child. The purpose of this study was to compare knowledge of concussion scores among White and African American parents and guardians. Methodology: This cross-sectional study consisted of a single survey of 53 questions that was given to parents/guardians of high school athletes at a preseason parent meeting. Parent and guardian knowledge of concussion was assessed through a series of 45 questions. Participants were asked to correctly identify signs and symptoms of concussion, answer questions regarding the anatomy of a concussion (i.e. a concussion is an injury to the brain), answer true/false questions about general concussion knowledge, select from a list the consequences of multiple concussions and select from a list the consequences of returning to play too soon from a concussion. Knowledge of concussion was calculated by summing correct responses for the 45 knowledge questions. Racial differences were calculated using an ANCOVA, controlling for socioeconomic school type. The statistical significance level was set a priori p ≤ 0.05 for all analyses. Results: Participants of this study consisted of 176 [115 (65.3%) White, 61 (34.7%) African American] parents/guardians of high school athletes. Significant differences in knowledge of concussion scores between White parents/guardians [38.50 ± 4.55 (85.6% correct)], and African American parents/guardians [35.15 ± 4.97, 78.1% correct)] were identified (F(1,172) = 4.82, p = 0.03). Conclusion: Knowledge of concussion disparities exist between African American and White parents/guardians. This disparity could cause complications from concussion to surface among children and adolescents participating in sport as their parents/guardians may not be able to correctly identify the signs and symptoms in order to seek proper medical care. Practical Application: Findings from this study highlight quantitative differences in concussion knowledge of parents from different demographics. These findings underline disparities and inequities in access to concussion-health resources that need to be addressed.

The initial development and validation of the Racial Socialization Competency Scale: Quality and quantity.

The present study investigated the reliability and validity of the Racial Socialization Competency Scale (RaSCS). As posited by the Racial Encounter Coping Appraisal and Socialization Theory (RECAST), the RaSCS consists of 3 factors representing 3 novel dimensions of racial socialization competency present in families (e.g., stress, skills, and confidence). Responses to the RaSCS were collected from 361 self-identified Black and African American parents and primary caretakers across the United States. After factor analysis, three scales and 27 items were maintained. Evidence was consistently found for 2 subscales within the stress dimension, namely "Call to Action" and "General" racial socialization stressors. Dimensions were also related to their respectively hypothesized constructs, including overall stress, racial socialization frequency, and self-efficacy. Future directions and recommendations on the measure's use, particularly in the context of interventions, are also discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

African American Parents’ Educational Involvement in Urban Schools: Contextualized Strategies for Student Success in Adolescence

Research on parental educational involvement has been organized into three overarching domains—home-based involvement, school-based involvement, and academic socialization. Conventional empirical work in these domains typically centers involvement strategies around White, middle-class experiences rather than examining how optimal parenting approaches vary by race and context. Even fewer studies have explored the manifestations of involvement across these categories in underresourced urban educational settings. In response, the current study draws on the voices of African American parents and their children attending urban public schools to describe the distinct approaches to home-based involvement, school-based involvement, and academic socialization that parents use to ensure a quality education for their children. Findings demonstrate how African American parents engage in racially infused and contextually tailored navigational involvement approaches as they seek to offset the effects of inhibiting educational contexts. Results add ecological nuance and new typologies to how parental involvement in education is conceptualized across the settings.

Parents lose less weight than nonparents in an intensive lifestyle intervention.

SummaryObjectiveUnderstand whether parents lose less weight than nonparents in behavioural weight interventions.MethodsThe Look AHEAD (Action for Health in Diabetes) trial randomized adults with Type 2 diabetes and overweight to an intensive lifestyle intervention (ILI) or control (diabetes support and education [DSE]). Participants who reported living with a child under age 18 were designated as ‘parents’ for this analysis. Intention to treat analysis was performed of the effect of the ILI on change in weight at 1 year by parental status. Adherence to attending intervention visits was compared between parents and nonparents. Subgroup analyses were done based on previous subgroup findings in the Look AHEAD study.ResultsAmong 4,547 participants, 15% were parents. Parents were younger and more likely to have self‐identified as African American or Hispanic/Latino. Comparing ILI with DSE, parents lost less weight than nonparents (−7.1% vs. −8.3%, p = 0.021). African American female parents lost 4% body weight compared with 7% in African American female nonparents (p = 0.01).ConclusionsIn a randomized trial, parents lost less weight than nonparents, and this difference was largest for African American women. These findings suggest parents face unique challenges achieving weight loss; more research is needed to understand and optimize interventions for parents.

The Role of Racial-Ethnic Socialization, Center-Based Childcare and Caregiver Stability in Promoting Successful Development in Young Children of Formerly Incarcerated Parents

Background. In the U.S., approximately 33 million children have at least one parent with a criminal record. Of these children, a higher percentage are African American and Hispanic. One in 9 African American children and 1 in 28 Hispanic children had an incarcerated parent in 2010 compared to 1 in 57 Caucasian children. Given this familial history of incarceration, these children are at higher risk of developmental problems compared to their peers but many do not develop adverse outcomes. Prior research with African American parents showed that their transmission of racial-ethnic pride, resiliency and self-efficacy could protect adolescents from developing maladaptive behaviors. Additionally, studies have …

Contested everyday cultural citizenship: “Mixed race” children and their ethnicized citizenship in South Korea

ABSTRACT This article examines how the everyday cultural citizenship of “mixed race” children of one Korean parent and one immigrant parent is contested. This study transposes the concept of ethnicized citizenship to mixed race children and their everyday practices of citizenship based on ethnicity and parent(s). Relying primarily on the personal narratives of mixed race children, derived from essay competitions, this research comparatively analyzes the experiences of three categories of mixed race children: co-ethnic (with a Korean father and ethnic Korean mother from China), inter-Asian (Korean father and Asian [non-Korean] mother), and multiracial (one Korean parent and one European or African American parent). This article argues that the ethnicized citizenship of an immigrant mother operates as a mechanism for institutional and socio-cultural exclusion of mixed race children.

Reward Responsiveness in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study: African Americans' Diminished Returns of Parental Education.

(1) Background: Reward responsiveness (RR) is a risk factor for high-risk behaviors such as aggressive behaviors and early sexual initiation, which are all reported to be higher in African American and low socioeconomic status adolescents. At the same time, parental education is one of the main drivers of reward responsiveness among adolescents. It is still unknown if some of this racial and economic gap is attributed to weaker effects of parental education for African Americans, a pattern also called minorities’ diminished returns (MDRs). (2) Aim: We compared non-Hispanic White and African American adolescents for the effects of parent education on adolescents RR, a psychological and cognitive construct that is closely associated with high-risk behaviors such as the use of drugs, alcohol, and tobacco. (3) Methods: This was a cross-sectional analysis that included 7072 adolescents from the adolescent brain cognitive development (ABCD) study. The independent variable was parent education. The main outcome as adolescents’ RR measured by the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral activation system (BAS) measure. (4) Results: In the overall sample, high parent education was associated with lower levels of RR. In the overall sample, we found a statistically significant interaction between race and parent education on adolescents’ RR. The observed statistical interaction term suggested that high parent education is associated with a weaker effect on RR for African American than non-Hispanic White adolescents. In race-stratified models, high parent education was only associated with lower RR for non-Hispanic White but not African American adolescents. (5) Conclusion: Parent education reduces RR for non-Hispanic White but not African American adolescents. To minimize the racial gap in brain development and risk-taking behaviors, we need to address societal barriers that diminish the returns of parent education and resources in African American families. We need public and social policies that target structural and societal barriers, such as the unequal distribution of opportunities and resources. To meet such an aim, we need to reduce the negative effects of social stratification, segregation, racism, and discrimination in the daily lives of African American parents and families. Through an approach like this, African American families and parents can effectively mobilize their resources and utilize their human capital to secure the best possible tangible outcomes for their adolescents.

Engaging African American Parents to Develop a Mobile Health Technology for Breastfeeding: KULEA-NET.

African Americans breastfeed less than other groups, which has implications for health throughout the life course. Little is known about mobile health technologies to support breastfeeding. This study proceeded in two phases. The aim of Phase 1 was to identify ideal technological components and content of a mobile health intervention. The aim of Phase 2 was to determine the usability of a prototype, KULEA-NET, based on the Phase 1 findings. For this mixed-methods study, we used community-based participatory research methods and user-centered technology design methods. We used open coding in NVivo 11 to organize data from focus groups and in-depth interviews, then we analyzed the data. We then developed a prototype and tested the prototype's usability with the System Usability Scale. Fifty pregnant and postpartum African Americans from the District of Columbia participated. Participants preferred an app with text messaging technology and identified areas for intervention: self-efficacy, parent-child attachment beliefs, social support, public breastfeeding and social desirability, and returning to work. Desired features included local resources, support person access, baby care logs, identification of public breastfeeding venues, and peer discussions. The System Usability Scale score was 73.8, which indicates above average usability. A mobile health technology like KULEA-NET can be used to meet the breastfeeding needs of African Americans, build social desirability, and complement traditional health care. The appeal of an African American-specific intervention is unclear. Responding to mixed feeding practices is challenging. KULEA-NET is a mobile breastfeeding intervention guided by the preferences of African American parents and offers promising usability metrics.

The Indirect Effects of Police Racial Bias on African American Families

This qualitative study investigated the personal experiences of police racial bias and brutality among 18 African-American parents, the effect these experiences have had on them, how they discuss such incidents with their children, and which sources of strength the rely on during difficult times. Results revealed that both the participants and some of their children had endured negative encounters with law enforcement, and most of them suffered mental health consequences as a result, including fear, anger, and chronic stress. Most of the participants reported engaging in various forms of preparation for bias, including preparation for interaction with the police. For many, this was in order to ensure their children’s survival. Despite the negative and sometimes traumatic experiences, participants indicated that they found strength primarily in their faith and their families. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Recruiting African American parents of school-aged children in a physical activity study: Lessons learned.

To describe the recruitment strategies and lessons learned when enrolling African American parents/caregivers of school-aged children (ages 6-12 years) in an online survey of physical activity. With physical activity serving as a modifiable behavioral risk factor for several chronic diseases (obesity and cardiovascular diseases), little is understood regarding the influences on African Americans' physical activity participation to develop culturally appropriate physical activity interventions. Gaining a better understanding of physical activity influences is possible through research, yet recruiting and enrolling African Americans in health research is a challenge. Over a three-month period, a multidimensional approach (distribution of flyers, community partnerships, network sampling, African American researcher, effective communication, and data collection procedures) was used for study recruitment. We exceeded our recruitment goal of 105 participants. A total of 127 African American parent/caregivers of school-aged children enrolled, which included both females/mothers (n = 87, 69%) and males/fathers (n = 40, 31%). Network sampling was the single most effective recruitment strategy for reaching this population. Lessons learned in this study includes considering participant burden and their comfort with technology, as well as gaining community trust. Lessons learned in recruiting African American parents provides a guide for future research. Efforts are needed to further increase the representation of African American males in health research.

A translational science approach to community-based participatory research using methodological triangulation

To advance the science of translational research and triangulation through a case study of community-based participatory research (CBPR) study on children’s exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS). A total of 130 African American parents and children were recruited to participate in 13 parent advisory board key informant interviews (n = 6), parent tobacco use and behavior survey (n = 63), children’s (aged 6 months to 5 years) salivary assays (n = 43), and three member check focus groups (n = 18). Data were collected and analyzed separately, and overall findings were evaluated for consistency, inconsistency, divergent data, and data saturation using a data matrix table aligned with the social ecological model. Out of 43 children, 39.5% had levels of cotinine, suggesting high ETS exposure. The findings demonstrated that extremely low knowledge on how to protect children from exposure as well as low education and poverty increase the likelihood that parents do not believe in the harms of ETS. Custodial parents cannot control noncustodial parents smoking around children and 28% of children live in homes with no or partial smoking restrictions. Children’s healthcare providers are inconsistently inquiring about ETS exposure. Children living in attached homes had a greater likelihood of being exposed to ETS by another adult outside the home. CBPR is an effective strategy for translating science into promising community-informed interventions that meet the cultural and social needs of medically underserved populations. Integrated diverse data sets were utilized in the formation of a parental intervention targeting factors identified in the matrix.

Exploring the Perspectives of Middle-class African American Parents Who Are Charter School Skeptics

The expansion of charter schools continues to be one of the most hotly debated topics in American K–12 education. Through the use of in-depth interviews, this article explores the perceptions of charter schools among middle-class African American parents in Albany, NY, who have largely chosen traditional, city public schools over city charter schools. Findings reveal that the majority of parents disliked charter schools in that they connected them with the corporate/business model of education visible in the trend toward neoliberalism. Their critiques centered on three broad categories: skepticism of their academic quality, political or philosophical objections to charter schools, and a dislike of charter schools’ policies. This article concludes with limitations of the data and suggestions for future research.

Barriers and Facilitators to Involvement in Children's Diabetes Management Among Minority Parents.

This study aimed to describe parents' perceptions of the factors that facilitate or are barriers to their involvement in children's type 1 diabetes (T1D) management among African American and Latino parents. African American and Latino parents (N = 28) of 5- to 9-year-old children with T1D completed audio-recorded, semi-structured interviews that were transcribed and analyzed using thematic analysis. Themes were identified that aligned with the theoretically-derived Capability-Opportunity-Motivation-Behavior (COM-B) framework. Parents described Capability-based facilitators of parent involvement, including positive stress management, religious/spiritual coping, organizational/planning skills, and diabetes knowledge. Capability-based barriers included child and parent distress. Interpersonal relationships, degree of flexibility in work environments, and access to diabetes technologies were both Opportunity-based facilitators and barriers; and Opportunity-based barriers consisted of food insecurity/low financial resources. Parents' desire for their child to have a "normal" life was described as both a Motivation-based facilitator and barrier. African American and Latino families described helpful and unhelpful factors that spanned all aspects of the COM-B model. Reinforcing or targeting families' unique psychological, interpersonal, and environmental strengths and challenges in multilevel interventions has potential to maximize parental involvement in children's diabetes management.