Abstract
Background. In the U.S., approximately 33 million children have at least one parent with a criminal record. Of these children, a higher percentage are African American and Hispanic. One in 9 African American children and 1 in 28 Hispanic children had an incarcerated parent in 2010 compared to 1 in 57 Caucasian children. Given this familial history of incarceration, these children are at higher risk of developmental problems compared to their peers but many do not develop adverse outcomes. Prior research with African American parents showed that their transmission of racial-ethnic pride, resiliency and self-efficacy could protect adolescents from developing maladaptive behaviors. Additionally, studies have …
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