Affordable Water Research Articles

How Can Dangerous Levels of Nitrogen in Water be Remediated Using Nanofibers

Freshwater is vital for plant, animal, and human life. Due to increased demand for agricultural and animal products, excess reactive nitrogen species are seen in the environment as synthetic fertilizers. Consequently, increased instances of eutrophication occur in surface waters coupled with increased levels of nitrates in groundwaters. Both of these are common drinking water sources. Current nitrate treatment technologies require expensive infrastructure to build and maintain, have long treatment periods due to biological processes, and can generate copious amounts of waste and byproducts (ex: granular activated carbon and anion exchange resins). Safe, affordable, and sustainable reactive nitrogen removal water treatment technologies are needed. Nanotechnologies are an emerging, novel treatment for the removal of reactive nitrogen species in the form of nitrate in both drinking water and wastewater. In particular, chitosan nanofiber mats with algal substrate show promise in removing nitrate from water sources and have the added benefit of providing a sustainable source of biofuel. This article includes a review of nitrate contamination in the environment and chitosan nanofiber mats with an algal substrate possible solution.

A comprehensive approach to simulation of cartridge filtration using CFD

Household water treatment (HWT) systems are widely used for the provision of potable water in many countries with their low-cost key to attaining universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water, Sustainable Development Goal 6.1. Removal of suspended particles (turbidity) from water sources via cartridge filters is often the first step of a HWT system, with the primary treatment increasing the efficiency of a subsequent disinfection step.Whilst the performance of cartridge filters (removal efficiency and pressure drop) can be determined experimentally in long experiments with high volumes of water, numerical simulation adds fundamental insight to the influence of fluid dynamics on particle deposition and vice versa. In this study, a novel computational fluid dynamic (CFD) model was developed to simulate the fundamental mechanisms underpinning the removal of particles within the widely used 10 in. cartridge filter, informed by and complemented with laboratory validation. The Eulerian approach was used to simulate fluid flow with the Lagrangian approach adopted for particle tracking. Rosin-Rammler distribution was implemented with respect to the particle size distribution of the diatomaceous earth particles used in the experiments. Given particles were non-spherical (disk shape), Wadell’s sphericity was included to account for the effect of particle shape on drag force. A porous domain was implemented to simulate the filter element through addition of a source term to the momentum equations, with the likelihood of particle deposition, detachment and rebound also considered.Laboratory based validation studies confirmed the novel CFD model to accurately model removal of turbidity and predict the pressure drop across the filter with Root Mean Square Percentage Error (RMSPE) of less than 3%. The simulated location of particle deposition on the filter elements closely matched images taken at several stages during filtration experiments with the model aiding understanding of pattern of particle removal along and within the porous filter structure. This novel and comprehensive modelling methodology can be utilized to simulate the filtration process at the macro-scale, permitting evaluation of new filter designs and materials for advanced filtration systems; ultimately improving HWT system performance and reducing costs to users.

Assessment of levels and health risk of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) in selected sachet water packaged from groundwater resources in Ogun State, Nigeria

BackgroundSachet water is a source of affordable drinking water for low-income socioeconomic class. However, contamination by potentially toxic elements (PTEs) could pose severe adverse health risk to consumers. ObjectiveThe present study aimed at assessing the levels and health risk of PTEs in selected sachet water samples packaged from groundwater resources in Ogun State, Nigeria. MethodsA total of 140 bags of selected sachet water brands were purchased and analysed for eleven PTEs (some of which are rarely reported in Nigeria) using inductively coupled plasma - optical emission spectrophotometer. Recovery experiment was conducted to validate the performance of the used analytical instrument. Blank samples were also run to cancel the matrix effect of the analysing reagents, and to calculate the limit of detection. PTE data were evaluated for simple descriptive and inferential statistics using SPSS for Windows. Health risk assessment was conducted for hazard quotient (HQ), hazard index (HI) and cancer risk (CR). ResultsChromium (Cr) was the highest observed PTE in sachet water from Asero (707±1102 µg L−1), Isolu (363±374 µg L−1) and Makun-Shagamu (359±204 µg L−1) sites. The concentrations of Cr were higher than the permissible limit of the World Health Organization in 63% of the sachet water samples. Furthermore, the average contents of lead (Pb) and thallium (Tl) were observed at higher concentrations than the acceptable limits. The HQs exceeding the permissible threshold of 1.0 were observed for silver (Ag), aluminium (Al), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), Cr and Tl in 29% of the sachet water consumed by adults and children; indicating adverse health effects. The CRs of Cd and Cr at all the sampling locations, and As at few sites were higher than the acceptable limit of 1 × 10−4; suggesting possible development of cancer by the consumers. ConclusionThe high levels and health risk estimates of PTEs in the sachet water samples suggested unsafe for consumption. Periodic monitoring of PTEs in sachet water from the study area is recommended.

Do Socio-demographic Factors Influence Water-fetching Practices? Evidence from the Southwestern Coastal Region of Bangladesh

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 aims to provide equitable access to safe and affordable water services. Yet, the lack of potable water in Bangladesh’s coastal region is a significant barrier to attaining this target. This study examines how socio-demographic factors influence water-fetching practices in coastal Bangladesh. Using a self-administered questionnaire, we surveyed 371 people from three vulnerable sub-districts, and the Chi-square test and a Multinomial Logistic Regression were utilized to explore significant factors affecting water-fetching practices. Findings show that water-fetching is typically considered a woman’s responsibility. Although three-quarters of the respondents stated that women usually collect water at home, most believe they should not be the only household member responsible for this task. Despite many initiatives, women are still left behind, resulting in inequities and gender injustices in their homes and society. Nonetheless, this study unfolds that water-fetching practices are biased and influenced by social and gender roles, where intensive attention is needed.

IMPLEMENTATION OF STATE PROGRAMS ON PROVISION OF DRINKING WATER UNDER UN PROGRAMS

The article discusses the United Nations (UN) Millennium Development Goals and the Sustainable Development Program to ensure safe and affordable drinking water for all and effectively address water problems. Also analyzed the state programs of the Republic of Kazakhstan adopted within the UN programs and it is results.

Challenges and Solutions for Global Water Scarcity.

Climate change, global population growth, and rising standards of living have put immense strain on natural resources, resulting in the unsecured availability of water as an existential resource. Access to high-quality drinking water is crucial for daily life, food production, industry, and nature. However, the demand for freshwater resources exceeds the available supply, making it essential to utilize all alternative water resources such as the desalination of brackish water, seawater, and wastewater. Reverse osmosis desalination is a highly efficient method to increase water supplies and make clean, affordable water accessible to millions of people. However, to ensure universal access to water, various measures need to be implemented, including centralized governance, educational campaigns, improvements in water catchment and harvesting technologies, infrastructure development, irrigation and agricultural practices, pollution control, investments in novel water technologies, and transboundary water cooperation. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of measures for utilizing alternative water sources, with particular emphasis on seawater desalination and wastewater reclamation techniques. In particular, membrane-based technologies are critically reviewed, with a focus on their energy consumption, costs, and environmental impacts.

Leaving No One Behind: Prospects for User-Owned Urban Water Utilities in Kenya

Achieving universal access to basic services and safe and affordable water and sanitation to all by 2030, as targeted in Sustainable Development Goals 1 and 6, is of utmost importance in improving people’s well-being. In Kenya, this means fulfilling a significant water services gap. This study analyzed the viability of user-owned urban water utilities there from managers’ perspectives. It found that the high performance of the few licensed private utilities, high ownership and control, small size, robust public participation, and regulatory policies favor their performance. Yet, the costliness of water services production limits their viability in the most sidelined low-income areas. The article recommends (i) diversifying service production models, (ii) establishing a revolving fund to finance major capital investments, (iii) making full cost recovery a key policy objective, (iv) mobilizing financing from local users, including low-income earners, and (v) setting pricing structures that imply cross-subsidizing between the rich and poor.

Who Benefits from Special District Service Delivery?: Water Affordability in the United States

Despite decades of controversy about the relationship between special districts and public policy, questions remain about the impact of government specialization on service delivery. In this paper, we explore one aspect of this debate, how special districts impact equity in the costs of service delivery, using water affordability as our empirical case. Two dominant views of special districts have emerged from the literature that are relevant to our empirical exploration. The first asserts that special districts are a form of “shadow government,” set up for the benefits of developers and other special interests and unaccountable to the general population. The second claims that special districts fit into a polycentric vision of local government, better representing the interests of residents due to their singular policy focus, and improving residents’ ability to pinpoint politicians responsible for specific services. Using an original dataset of all public water utility in the United States serving over 40,000 people and two measures of water affordability, we quantitatively test whether special districts have systematically less affordable water rates. We find some evidence that this is the case, additionally finding that the gap in affordability grows as community poverty levels increase.

Microplastic pollution of drinking water in a metropolis.

This study was conducted to identify microplastics (MPs) in drinking water from various sources in İstanbul that are known to pose potential health risks. One hundred drinking water samples were analysed. Samples were filtered with a glass filter (Ø: 1.0 μm). After filtration, microscopy was used, followed by SEM-EDS and ATR-FTIR identification to characterise MPs. Two shapes (fibers and fragments) and eight polymer types of MPs (ethylene propylene, neoprene, polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polytetrafluoroethylene, vinyl chloride vinyl acetate copolymer) with sizes of 12-4892 µm (548 ± 777 µm) were detected. These MPs abundances ranged from 10 to 390 MP L-1 (134 ± 93 MP L-1). In the identification of MPs detected in filters by FTIR spectroscopy, bisphenol A, which is used in the production of various plastics and described as an important public health problem, was detected in 9.74% of MPs. Within the scope of the Sustainable Development Goals, UNEP has a specific objective of ensuring access to safe, affordable drinking water (SDG 6). With a clear statement, it should be emphasised that MPs are a significant barrier to the provision of safe drinking water, and a comprehensive plan for overcoming this barrier should be developed.

Water disinfection using durable ceramic filter coated with silver nanoparticles synthesized using actinomycetes

Contamination with pathogens degrades water quality and is a major cause of many waterborne diseases. The aim of this research is to reduce the global disease burden by presenting an efficient, durable, and low-cost ceramic filter impregnated with actinomycetes-mediated silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) for water disinfection in rural areas. This marks the first report on the simultaneous biosynthesis of AgNPs utilizing cell-free supernatants obtained from terrestrial actinomycetes. An easy and efficient method was used to impregnate AgNPs onto a ceramic filter using 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES). The APTES linker is anchored to the ceramic surface through Si–O–Si bridges, while the terminal amino groups coordinate with AgNPs. Notably, the observed inhibition zone around the filter with AgNPs was ~ 18 mm, suggesting that the silver ions were responsible for the antibacterial activity. After 30 min of sonication, only insignificant traces of AgNPs were released from the filter, making it stable for long-term antibacterial activity when treating water. According to the laboratory simulation experiments, the untreated filter can reject about 99% of spiked bacteria, while the antibacterial efficiency of the filter coated with AgNPs was 100% due to the synergistic effect between filtration and disinfection with AgNPs. In addition, the average concentration of dissolved silver in the outlet water of the ultrafiltration system during three months was 33.7 μg/L, far below the permissible limit (100 μg/L) for drinking water. Overall, this work offers a suitable and affordable water treatment strategy for low-income, isolated, and rural societies in developing countries.

A systematic review on water accessibility and safety in Ghana: The plausibility to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 6.1 by 2030

Background: Water is essential in everyday life hence, there is a need for it to be available in quality and quantity to all. This study aimed to review relevant published studies on water accessibility and safety in Ghana from 2015 to 2022 to determine the plausibility of Ghana achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6.1 by 2030.
 Methodology: A systematic review was conducted based on the PRISMA guidelines using four databases including ProQuest, Science Direct, Web of Science and Scopus. Studies with data on specified keywords and published in English from January 2015 to June 2022 were included in this study. Duplicated titles were removed and the title, abstract and full text of remained studies were reviewed by two independent coders. Thematic analysis was conducted to identify themes.
 Results: Ten studies met the criteria and the majority of them used qualitative design (60%). Five main themes were identified including; causes of water contamination, the prevalence of waterborne diseases, types of water sources, implemented policies and challenges for policy implementation. The government implemented policies to provide safe and potable drinking water for the citizen and now, about 72% of the population have access to treated pipe water. Some challenges facing implemented policies include political interest in illegal mining, inadequate waste disposal facilities, and poverty.
 Conclusion: This study shows that Ghana can achieve Sustainable Development Goal 6.1which is "Access to clean and affordable water for all" by 2030. The government, public health organizations and stakeholders should work together to alleviate the challenges faced in achieving this goal.

Bubbleless aerated-biological activated carbon as a superior process for drinking water treatment in rural areas

Drinking water supply in rural areas remains a substantial challenge due to complex natural, technical and economic conditions. To provide safe and affordable drinking water to all, as targeted in the UN Sustainable Development Goals (2030 Agenda), low-cost, efficient water treatment processes suitable for rural areas need to be developed. In this study, a bubbleless aeration BAC (termed ABAC) process is proposed and evaluated, involving the incorporation of a hollow fiber membrane (HFM) assembly within a slow-rate BAC filter, to provide dissolved oxygen (DO) throughout the BAC filter and an increased DOM removal efficiency. The results showed that after a 210-day period of operation, the ABAC increased the DOC removal by 54%, and decreased the disinfection byproduct formation potential (DBPFP) by 41%, compared to a comparable BAC filter without aeration (termed NBAC). The elevated DO (> 4 mg/L) not only reduced secreted extracellular polymer, but also modified the microbial community with a stronger degradation ability. The HFM-based aeration showed comparable performance to 3 mg/L pre-ozonation, and the DOC removal efficiency was four times greater than that of a conventional coagulation process. The proposed ABAC treatment, with its various advantages (e.g., high stability, avoidance of chemicals, ease of operation and maintenance), is well-suited to be integrated as a prefabricated device, for decentralized drinking water systems in rural areas.

Modeling the support factor (P) as a function of socio-economic factors for improved erosion prediction on the hillslopes of Lake Victoria Basin of Uganda

A major challenge to erosion prediction using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is the uncertainty in parametrizing the support factor (P). This P factor is usually regarded as 1 in areas with no structural management practices. However, in agrarian landscapes which are dominated with agronomic management practices, the P factor is difficult to parameterize. Moreover, the agronomic practices are usually the most simplest and affordable soil and water conservation technologies for mitigating runoff and soil losses in many developing countries. Our objective was to model the support factor (P) as a function of socio-economic factors for adoption of management practices in order to improve erosion prediction. Our methodology involved four (4) steps; namely, (a) estimating potential erosion using RUSLE; (b) establishing the socio-economic for adoption of management practices using Probit regression analysis; (c) integrating socio-economic factors with biophysical parameters to form a Systems Dynamic (SD) model for soil erosion; and (d) validating the Systems Dynamic (SD) model at watershed level using empirical data and RUSLE as the baseline model. Validation results showed that on Acric Ferralsols at slope gradient 10-15% the potential erosion as predicted by RUSLE model ranged between 120-140 t ha -1 yr -1 . On the other hand, soil loss as predicted from the Systems Dynamic (SD) model, based on the same slope gradient and soil condition as the case in RUSLE, ranged between 11-50 t ha -1 yr -1 . This accounted for about 67-90% decrease in soil loss. Model outputs were calibrated and validated by field data measured using Un-bound runoff plots ( Gerlach Troughs ). The results showed that in sole banana soil loss increased step-wise with increasing gradient in the measured and predicted data (P < 0.05); while in sole coffee contradicting results were achieved. We concluded that modelling the support factor (P) as a function of socio-economic factors provides a pragmatic solution to the uncertainty in its parameterization. Generalizing the support factor (P) as one (1) even in areas with agronomic management technology tends to over-estimate the risk of soil erosion. Thus, it can potentially stand out as a dis-incentive that undermines farmers’ efforts to mitigate runoff and soil loss in degraded watersheds. Key words: 1. Erosion, 2. Geo information science, 3. System Dynamics, 4. Support factor, 5. Uganda Funding was by SIDA SAREC Project 377 under Makerere University for the period 2016-2022. DOI: 10.7176/JEES/13-3-06 Publication date: May 30 th 2023

Irrigation water pricing based on the ELES-WPTI model in the Yinda-Jihuang project of China

Abstract Water pricing is the key to maximizing the economic and social benefits of the water transfer project. In this study, we propose the extended linear expenditure system-water price tolerance index (ELES-WPTI) model that combines the ELES model and the WPTI method for water pricing. Firstly, the ELES model is used to estimate the price elasticity of water demand and the basic demand for farmers of different income levels. Secondly, the WPTI method is used to simulate and analyze the affordability of farmers of different income levels for agricultural water under the dynamic change of water price standards. Finally, the ELES-WPTI model is applied to the Yinda-Jihuang (YJ) Project, China, to determine the appropriate agricultural water price. The results reveal that the farmers in the DH district have slightly higher affordability of water price than that in HL District. As water consumption should account for less than 15% of the total production cost and 10% of the net income, the affordable water price is determined to be 237 $/hm² in the DH district and 205 $/hm² in the HL district, respectively.

Greener Aspects of Nanoparticle Synthesis for Water Remediation: Challenges and Future Perspective

Continued industrialization, urbanization and ecological destruction have caused significant environmental problems, particularly increased water pollution. Introducing harmful organic and inorganic effluents into watercourses has limited the supply and accessibility of safe and affordable drinking water. There is an urgent need to find green and sustainable abatement solutions for water remediation, many based on nanoparticles. The primary objective of this review is to explore and have a comprehensive discussion on the present trends, challenges and prospects for the green synthesis of nanoparticles for wastewater remediation. The connection between green chemistry and nanoparticles synthesis is articulated with many examples exploring the use of renewable or biobased resources. Energy-efficient processes (microwaves, ultrasound and laser ablation) and the use of alternative solvents (supercritical carbon dioxide, ionic liquids and biobased solvents) are explored. The review aims to make the readers discern the mechanistic insights towards the working of various green processes. Conclusively, the adoption of green nanotechnology has the potential to veritably addresses the global water shortage issue under the domain of environmental sustainability.

The Municipal Drinking Water Database

Drinking water services in the U.S. are critical for public health and economic development but face technical, political, and administrative challenges. Understanding the root cause of these challenges and how to overcome them is hindered by the lack of integrative, comprehensive data about drinking water systems and the communities they serve. The Municipal Drinking Water Database (MDWD) combines financial, institutional, demographic, and environmental conditions of U.S. municipalities and their community water systems (CWS). Municipally owned and operated CWS are ubiquitous and play a critical role in ensuring safe, affordable drinking water services for most Americans; they also offer important opportunities for understanding municipal government behavior and decision making. The MDWD is publicly available and will enable researchers and practitioners interested in viewing or tracking drinking water spending, the financial condition of municipal governments, or myriad demographic, political, institutional, and physical characteristics of municipal drinking water systems to access the data quickly and easily. This paper describes the database and its creation, details examples of how the data can be used and discusses illustrative analyses of trends and insights that can be gleaned from the database. Building and sharing more integrated datasets provides new opportunities for asking novel questions about the drivers and consequences of local decision making about drinking water.

Pengelolaan Sarana Air Minum (SAM) rumah tangga yang aman di Padang Gelugur Pasaman, Sumatera Barat

The global target that must be achieved regarding universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all is the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Goal 6, namely that universal access to safe drinking water fulfills the 4K, namely quantity, quality, continuity, and affordability, and all households have access to adequate sanitation. According to the SDGs, safe drinking water is drinking water that is fit for consumption and free from fecal contamination and certain chemicals. Water quality at the point of consumption is strongly influenced by drinking water management factors at the household level, such as processing, storage and storage factors for raw water or drinking water sources. This research was conducted in October 2022, the sample in this study was the community as many as 98 respondents and drinking water facilities as many as 49 samples of water. ) obtained results, which fall into the category of 0 percent safe management, 30.6 percent less safe (30) facilities, and unsafe 69.4 percent (68) drinking water facilities. This means that the drinking water facilities used by respondents In Padang Gelugur nothing is safe, or does not meet the requirements for safe drinking water sources for the community

Analysis of the evolutionary game between maritime regulators and carriers under the discharge of ballast nuclear wastewater from ships

The Japanese government officially announced the discharge of Fukushima nuclear wastewater into the sea on April 13, 2021, which has caused concern and strong opposition from countries worldwide and international environmental organizations. Through the analysis of relevant data, it is found that the hazards of ship ballast nuclear wastewater are reflected in the following: ship ballast water flows widely, the high discharge of ship ballast water, and the high reserves of Fukushima nuclear wastewater. In this case, the evolutionary game models of the maritime regulator and the carrier, and the society, maritime regulator and the carrier were constructed, respectively. In the evolutionary game model between the maritime regulator and the carrier, the carrier is not very motivated to deal with the ship's ballast water due to the influence of several related factors, especially the exorbitant treatment cost. After introducing the social supervision and reward system, maritime regulators found that controlling their own supervision cost and giving appropriate rewards to freighters with the participation of social supervision can effectively improve the motivation of freighters to deal with the ship's ballast water. In addition, through the comparative analysis of the before-and-after game model, it is found that the high cost required by the carriers to deal with ships' ballast water will directly affect the stable state that the game model tends to be. Therefore, the sustainable growth of the port's ecological environment benefits from pursuing affordable and effective ship's ballast water treatment.

Determination of factors affecting customer satisfaction towards “maynilad” water utility company: A structural equation modeling-deep learning neural network hybrid approach

The Maynilad Water Services Inc. (MWSI) is responsible for supplying water to the west zone of Metro Manila. The utility provides service to 17 cities and municipalities which frequently experience water interruptions and price hikes. This study aimed to identify the key factors affecting customer satisfaction toward MWSI by integrating the SERVQUAL dimensions and Expectation Confirmation Theory (ECT). An online questionnaire was disseminated to 725 MWSI customers using the snowball sampling method to obtain accurate data. Ten latent were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling and Deep Learning Neural Network hybrid. It was found that Assurance, Tangibles, Empathy, Expectations, Confirmation, Performance, and Water consumption were all factors affecting MWSI customers' satisfaction. Results showed that having an affordable water service, providing accurate water bills, on-time completion of repairs and installations, intermittent water interruptions and professional employees contribute to the general satisfaction. MWSI officials may utilize this study's findings to assess further the quality of their services and design effective policies to improve. The employment of DLNN and SEM hybrid showed promising results when employed in human behavior. Thus, the results of this study would be beneficial when examining satisfaction to utilities and policies among service providers in different countries. Moreover, this study could be extended and applied among other customer and service-focused industries worldwide.

A new commercial prototype of a bubble column evaporator (BCE) for high-quality water production in livestock (piggery) farms

The bubble column evaporator (BCE) offers a novel thermal process with enhanced evaporation efficiency, due to the enhanced heat and mass transfer efficiency from a continuous stream of hot dense bubbles that rise into a column of solution. This work evaluates the viability of the BCE to produce purified water from two different experimental solutions: synthetic piggery effluent and 0.5 m NaCl solution, when sparging with either hot air or combustion gas flow. When the BCE prototype was operated with combustion gas, an increased heat and mass transfer efficiency was observed due to the heat released by the condensation of hot water vapour in the combustion gas mixture, therefore reducing the energy cost when using combustion gas to evaporate the column solutions. For the first time, the quality of the condensed water from the BCE prototype was analysed and the report showed that high-quality condensed water could meet the most rigorous international drinking water quality standards, thus being safe to reuse in the piggery farm. In general, this paper provides a simple and affordable water treatment process that can be applied in the livestock (piggery) farm for efficient water reuse.