Advanced Weapon Systems Research Articles

Main problems of the evaluation and selection of advanced weapon systems exemplified by a multi-role combat aircraft

This paper presents a selection of issues related to the methods of evaluation and selection of advanced weapon systems for armed forces. The paper’s focus is ranking in the form of typical Multidimensional Comparative Analysis Methods, and the AHP method which represents a large group of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis methods. Both methods were illustrated with a practical computational example related to combat aircraft. The example can help determine the defensive capabilities of friendly forces; it can also support the decision-making process in the acquisition of novel armament, including aircraft, ships, surface-to-air missile defense systems, etc. Keywords: armament, military aviation, decision making support, multi-criteria analysis, AHP method, ranking.

System identification-based aeroelastic modelling for wing flutter

PurposeGround vibration testing (GVT) results can be used as system parameters for predicting flutter, which is essential for aeroelastic clearance. This paper aims to compute GVT-based flutter in time domain, using unsteady air loads by matrix polynomial approximations.Design/methodology/approachThe experimental parameters, namely, frequencies and mode shapes are interpolated to build an equivalent finite element model. The unsteady aerodynamic forces extracted from MSC NASTRAN are approximated using matrix polynomial approximations. The system matrices are condensed to the required shaker location points to build an aeroelastic reduced order state space model in SIMULINK.FindingsThe computed aerodynamic forces are successfully reduced to few input locations (optimal) for flutter simulation on unknown structural system (where stiffness and mass are not known) through a case study. It is demonstrated that GVT data and the computed unsteady aerodynamic forces of a system are adequate to represent its aeroelastic behaviour.Practical implicationsAirforce of every nation continuously upgrades its fleet with advanced weapon systems (stores), which demands aeroelastic flutter clearance. As the original equipment manufacturers does not provide the design data (stiffness and mass) to its customers, a new methodology to build an aeroelastic system of unknown aircraft is devised.Originality/valueA hybrid approach is proposed, involving GVT data to build an aeroelastic state space system, using rationally approximated air loads (matrix polynomial approximations) computed on a virtual FE model for ground flutter simulation.

Striking a deal on the F-35: multinational politics and US defence acquisition

Why does joint defence production of advanced weapons systems, which appears like a logical choice at first, become harder for both the primary production state and its allies to manage and justify as the acquisition process runs its course? To answer this question, we analyze the multinational politics of the F-35 JSF with a focus on how secondary states who have bought into the program are affected by domestic politics within the primary production state. We find that US congressional and bureaucratic politics, cuts to US defence spending, and a desire to retain tight control over the program has locked allies into a program with which they have little leverage. Potentially losing the ability to fight along side the US if they don’t follow through, coupled with inter-Alliance pressures, leaves secondary states who are involved with the F-35 program, vulnerable to the whims of US domestic politics.

Fabrication and characterization of HMX@TPEE energetic microspheres with reduced sensitivity and superior toughness properties

The development of a facile method for improvement of interface interaction between rigid particles and coating polymer is of great importance for energetic composite materials, especially for military purpose. In this paper, energetic composites with spherical morphology, toughness property and low sensitivity are firstly fabricated by using Octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX) as core material and thermoplastic polyester-ether elastomer (TPEE) as shell material via an emulsion solvent evaporation (ESV) method. From the morphology and structure characteristic of as-prepared energetic microspheres, it is found that the HMX@TPEE energetic microspheres have uniform spherical morphologies, narrow size distribution and honeycomb coating structure under the circumstance of compound emulsifiers and appropriate core-shell ratio. The good toughness of HMX@TPEE microspheres in Brazilian test and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) demonstrates a new route to enhance interface interaction between HMX particles and TPEE matrix. Moreover, because of the favorable energy-decentralizing property of this exotic honeycomb structure, the sensitivity of HMX@TPEE microspheres measured by BAM impact sensitivity instrument can be markedly decreased and the impact energy (Eli) can be improved from 3.5 J to 8.0 J at the HMX/TPEE ratio of 5/1. This fabrication of HMX@TPEE microspheres with adjustable coating content via a facile ESV process might provide a promising approach for HMX based energetic composites to enhance the safety and toughness properties when used in advanced weapon system.

방위사업에 적용 가능한 시스템 엔지니어링 표준에 대한 고찰

The system engineering should be actively applied to successfully develop a complex and advanced weapon system, because the system engineering uses a multidisciplinary approach. Therefore, this study proposed a system engineering process for a successful weapon system development. According to the national standard policy, an IPT aspect system engineering standard must adapt the ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288. It also asks for tailoring with considering the IPT characteristics as a weapon system acquisition institution. The IPT aspect system engineering process to acquire a weapon system can be expressed with 3 process groups (Agreement, Technical Management, Technical) and 20 processes. There was a need for an institutional framework to hire retired experts from related organizations as consultants to apply the low-cost and high efficiency system engineering in the weapon system acquisition field.

기술난이도와 기술성숙도를 이용한 핵심기술 연구개발 위험도 관리에 관한 연구

In the Core Technology R&D of the defence area, the development of the related core element technology could be the foundation to develop advanced weapon system in the future. But it might make various problems if you can not accurately define the TRL of the element technology. In other words, if the technology is not sufficiently mature and then the project starts, it might require an increase in the development period and additional cost. Finally the system will be in an incomplete state and result in user dissatisfaction and the project failure. Therefore it is a very important task to properly assess the TRL for a successful project. In this study, We propose the method for risk management of core technology R&D project of the defence area using the QFD process with degree of difficulty and technology readiness level. It is also presented the process to determine the risk level using TRL and Degree of difficulty. Finally We apply this method to UGV system for verifying the result of this study.

후속군수지원 데이터 분석을 활용한 무기체계 품질향상 방법론

첨단화된 무기체계는 화력이 증가하고 다양한 기능이 추가됐지만, 무기의 결함은 치명적인 결과를 초래할 수 있다. 따라서 군은 무기체계 개발 혹은 운용 시 발생하는 결함을 최소화하기 위해 품질향상의 필요성을 제기하고 있다. 최근 제조업에서는 품질 향상을 위해 품질 데이터를 활용한 빅 데이터 분석에 대한 연구가 활발히 이루어지고 있다. 방위산업도 품질향상을 위해 다양한 시도를 하고 있지만, 무기 체계 개발 단계에서는 데이터 수집이 어려운 특성으로 인해 합리적인 품질분석이 불가능하다. 따라서 본 논문은 후속군수지원 단계의 데이터를 활용하여 무기체계와 부대에 대한 결함 유형을 분석한다. 후속군수지원 데이터는 전력화 이후에 수집되는 데이터로써 무기체계를 사용하는 부대들의 정비 요청에 관한 정보를 포함한다. 이러한 정보를 통해 본 연구는 무기체계의 결함에 영향을 미치는 변수들을 선택하고, 선택된 변수들에 대한 분석을 수행한다. 이러한 분석 결과는 무기개발 시 고려해야할 중요한 요인들을 찾고, 이를 반영한 무기체계 품질향상 방법론을 제안한다. 이 방법론은 무기체계 개발 기간을 단축시키고, 결함을 줄여 품질향상에 도움이 될 것으로 기대한다. Although advanced weapon system weapons with high-performance and various functions have been developed, weapon defects can be fatal in the weapons industry. Therefore, the army requires quality improvement to reduce the number of defects which occur during both the development and operation of the weapon system. Recently, many manufacturers, including weapons manufacturers, have conducted analyses using defect related big-data in order to improve the quality. However, there have been few data analyses, because it is difficult to obtain the data required for the analysis of the development phase. Therefore, this study summarizes the pattern of the weapon system, military organization, and defect types using the actual data of the Post-Logistics Support (PLS) phase. The PLS data, which is referred to as the data collected after force integration, includes information on requests for maintenance. Through this information, this study selects key variables and analyzes the selected variables. The analysis results show the critical factors to be considered during the development phase. Finally, this study proposes a framework for advanced PLS systems using the PLS data. The proposed framework enables the development time of weapon systems to be further shortened and their quality to be improved.

The Diffusion of Drone Warfare? Industrial, Organizational, and Infrastructural Constraints

Many scholars and policymakers are concerned that the emergence of drone warfare—a first step toward the robotics age—will promote instability and conflict at the international level. This view depends on the widely shared assumption among International Relations scholars that military hardware spreads easily, especially in the age of globalization and real-time communications. In this article, we question this consensus. Drawing from the literature in management, we advance a new theory of diffusion of military innovations and test its two underlying causal mechanisms. First, we argue that designing, developing, and manufacturing advanced weapon systems require laboratories, and testing and production facilities, as well as know-how and experience that cannot be easily borrowed from other fields. Second, we argue that the adoption of military innovations requires both organizational and infrastructural support. We test our two claims on three types of combat-effective drones: loitering attack munitions (LAMs), intelligence surveillance and reconnaissance drones (ISR), and unmanned combat autonomous vehicles (UCAVs). We find that even wealthy, advanced, and militarily capable countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and France have struggled to produce or adopt such platforms. We conclude that concerns about the diffusion of drone warfare appear significantly exaggerated, as do claims that globalization redistributes military power at the global level. More generally, our analysis sheds light on how the interaction between platform and adoption challenges affects the rate and speed of diffusion of different military innovations.

Experimental Investigation on Rotary Ultrasonic Face Grinding of SiCp/Al Composites

SiCp/Al composites have been widely used in many fields such as aerospace, automobile, advanced weapon system, etc. But this kind of material, especially with high volume fraction, is difficult to machine due to the reinforced particles existing in matrix, which has limited its further application. Rotary ultrasonic machining (RUM) has many excellent features and it has never been used to machine SiCp/Al composites. In order to improve the machinability and application of SiCp/Al composites, the rotary ultrasonic face grinding experiments of SiCp/Al composites reinforced with 45% volume SiC particles were carried out to investigate cutting force, surface quality, tool wear, and abrasive chip shapes. The experimental results indicate that ultrasonic vibration could reduce cutting force, surface roughness, surface defects, and increase plastic removal ratio. The cutting force could be lowered by an average of 13.86% and the surface roughness could be lowered by an average of 11.53%. The examined results of tool wear patterns suggest that tool wear is mainly caused by grain breakage and grain fall-off. Grinding wheel blockage and grinding burn were not observed in machining process.

The Air-Sea Battle ‘concept’: A critique

In May 2013 the Pentagon released an unclassified summary of the top-secret Air-Sea Battle (ASB) Concept. ASB serves to focus the Pentagon’s efforts to organize, train and equip the armed forces against advanced weapons systems that threaten the US military’s unfettered freedom of access and action in the global commons. While officials claim ASB is merely improve service interoperability and could be applied in any number of conflict situations, this article argues that in fact the doctrine represents the Pentagon’s plan for confronting China’s increasingly capable and confident military. This raises two urgent questions: how does ASB fit into an overall US foreign policy toward China – and, if a military confrontation cannot be avoided, are there less risky alternatives, such a maritime blockade, that can achieve the same ends as ASB?

군 정비시설 운용 최적화를 위한 시뮬레이션 분석 연구

최근 국가의 향후 국방 계획이 첨단 무기체계로 향하는 만큼, 이를 위한 군 정비시설도 점점 중요해지고 있다. 하지만 현재 군 정비시설은 관리자의 경험적인 방법과 단순 수리적 계산으로 운용되고 있다. 그래서 본 연구에서는 좀 더 과학적이고 논리적인 방법을 이용하여 군 정비시설 운용 최적화 방법을 제시한다. 연구는 다음과 같은 절차를 따른다. 첫째, 군 정비시설 운용을 분석하여 시뮬레이션을 설계한다. 둘째, 최적화를 위해 독립변수와 종속변수를 정의한다. 독립변수는 군 정비시설 운용 세부사항으로 볼 수 있는 정비장비, 운반장비, 그리고 작업자 수이고, 종속변수는 독립변수에 영향을 받는 총 정비시간으로 결정한다. 셋째, 설계된 시뮬레이션 모델을 기준으로 Warmup 기간을 얻기 위해 Warmup 분석 한다. 넷째, 군 정비시설 운용 최적화를 위해 독립변수의 최적 조합을 메타휴리스틱인 진화전략을 이용하여 산출한다. 이 최적 조합을 통해 군 정비시설 운용은 제한된 비용 내 최대 효과를 얻을 수 있다. 향후 복수의 무기체계 장비를 정비하는 군 정비시설의 다목적 분석 연구를 할 것이다. As the future national defense plan of government focus on advanced weapon system, military maintenance facility becomes more important. However, military maintenance facility has been managed by director's experience and simple mathematical calculation until now. Thus, the optimization for the management of military maintenance facility is suggested by more scientistic and logical methods in this study. The study follows the procedure below. First, simulation is designed according to the analysis of military maintenance facility. Second, independent variable and dependent variable are defined for optimization. Independent Variable includes the number of maintenance machine, transportation machine, worker in the details of military maintenance facility operation, and dependent variable involves total maintenance time affected by independent variable. Third, warmup analysis is performed to get warmup period, based on the simulation model. Fourth, the optimal combination is computed with evolution strategy, meta-heuristic, to enhance military maintenance management. By the optimal combination, the management of military maintenance facility can gain the biggest effect against the limited cost. In the future, the multipurpose study, to analyze the military maintenance facility covering various weapon system equipments, will be performed.

The Diffusion of Drone Warfare: Industrial, Infrastructural and Organizational Constraints

Many scholars and policy-makers are concerned that the emergence of drone warfare – a first step towards the robotics age – will promote instability and conflict at the international level. This view is consistent with the widely shared assumption among International Relations scholars that military hardware spreads easily, especially in the age of globalization and real-time communications. In this article, we question this consensus. Drawing from the literature in management, we advance a new theory of diffusion of military innovations and test its two underlying causal mechanisms. First, we argue that designing, developing and manufacturing advanced weapon systems require laboratories, testing and production facilities, as well as know-how and experience that cannot be easily borrowed from other fields. Second, we argue that the adoption of military innovations require both organizational and infrastructural support. We test our two claims on three types of combat-effective drones: loitering attack munitions (LAMs), intelligence surveillance and reconnaissance drones (ISR) and unmanned combat autonomous vehicles (UCAVs). We find that even wealthy, advanced and militarily capable countries such as the US, the UK, Germany and France have struggled to produce or adopt such platforms. We conclude that concerns about the diffusion of drone warfare appear significantly exaggerated as do claims that globalization redistributes military power at the global level. More generally, our analysis sheds light on how the interaction between platform and adoption challenges affects the rate and speed of diffusion of different military innovations.

Research on Cooperative Combat for Integrated Reconnaissance-Attack-BDA of Group LAVs

LAVs (loitering air vehicles) are advanced weapon systems that can loiter autonomously over a target area, detect and acquire the targets, and then attack them. In this paper, by the theory of Itô stochastic differential, a group system was analyzed. The uniqueness and continuity of the solution of the system was discussed. Afterwards the model of the system based on the state transition was established with the finite state machine automatically. At last, a search algorithm was proposed for obtaining good feasible solutions for problems. And simulation results show that model and method are effective for dealing with cooperative combat of group LAVs.

Show Us the Films: Transparency, National Security and Disclosure of Information Collected by Advanced Weapon Systems under International Law

The advent of modern technology such as drones provides states with unique capabilities to acquire, with ease, high-quality information regarding acts performed by armed forces and agencies, such as (but not only) targeted killings. In some cases, this information can shed light on the facts of the case, when alleged violations of international humanitarian law or international human rights law have occurred and thus investigation is called for. However, although calls for disclosure are increasing, states are reluctant to disclose information relating to such activities. This article discusses potential sources for obligations of disclosure, whether to civil society or to certain international bodies such as the International Criminal Court. In essence, the article posits that disclosure obligations can derive from the principle of transparency, as it applies, inter alia, to investigations, augmented by an emerging positive right to receive information. These obligations must be balanced, in turn, with considerations of national security. The article suggests that this balance, across a wide spectrum of international contexts, should be conducted in light of standards of necessity, proportionality and specificity. Accordingly, blanket non-disclosure may constitute a violation of international law or result in factual inferences to the detriment of states or individuals.

Categorization and legality of autonomous and remote weapons systems

AbstractThis article reconsiders the status and legality of both autonomous and remote weapons systems under international humanitarian law. Technologically advanced unmanned military systems are being introduced into the modern battlespace with insufficient recognition of their potential challenge to international humanitarian law. The article questions the understanding of both autonomous and remote weapons systems as ‘weapons’ and seeks to consider how their use may impact existing legal categories. Their use is then specifically situated to consider the legality of their deployment in certain contexts. Finally, the article raises the question of impunity for the use of both autonomous and remote weapons systems that arise from the inability to attribute responsibility for the harm they cause. It is imperative that law and policy are developed to govern the development and deployment of these advanced weapons systems to forestall these likely situations of impunity.

무기체계 정비성 향상을 위한 BIT 설계 및 검증 방안

Built-In-Test is a design feature in more and more advanced weapon system. During development test and evaluation(DT&E) it is critical that the BIT system be evaluated. The BIT system is an integral part of the weapon system and subsystem. Built-In-Test assists in conducting on system and subsystem failure detection and isolation to the Line Replaceable Unit(LRU). This capability reduces the need for highly skilled personnel and special test equipment at organizational level, and reduces maintenance down-time of system by shortening Total Corrective Maintenance Time. During DT&E of weapon system the objective of BIT system evaluation is to determine BIT capabilities achieved and to identify deficiencies in the BIT system. As a result corrective actions are implemented while the system is still in development. Through the use of the reiterative BIT evaluation the BIT system design was corrected, improved, or updated, as the BIT system matured.

무인항공기체계의 개념설계에서 SysML 모델의 활용에 관한 연구

최근의 전장 상황이 디지털 네트워크 중심의 전장체계를 기반으로 진화하면서, 개발해야 할 국방 전술무기체계가 첨단화, 복잡화, 다기능화 및 고도의 정밀화 등의 특성으로 가속화 되고 있다. 따라서 오늘날 국방 연구개발에서의 복잡도, 비용, 개발기간 및 위험 등을 효율적으로 관리하면서 성공적인 과제수행을 위해서는 시스템공학적인 설계 방법론의 적용이 필수불가결하게 되었다. 본 논문에서는 국방무기체계를 개발하기 위한 전체 수명주기 중 개념설계(conceptual design) 단계의 설계 활동에서 시스템공학 기법을 기반으로 하되 그래픽모델을 활용함으로써 여러 가지 장점을 추구하는 방안에 관해서 기술하고 있다. 특히 설계 대상시스템으로서 무인항공기 체계개발을 선택하였고, 모델링언어로서 표준 언어인 SysML을 적용함으로써 활용성을 증대시키고, 생성 된 모델들이 개념연구단계의 설계 활동에서 활용될 수 있는 방안에 관하여 논의하고 있다. 본 연구의 결과를 기반으로 향 후 추가 연구를 수행하면, 대형복합 국방무기시스템개발에서 전면적인 모델기반 시스템공학 방법론을 적용하기 위한 발전과정에 도움이 될 것으로 기대된다. Today's war fields can be characterized by net-centric wars where a variety of independent weapon systems are operated in connection with each other via networks. As such, weapon systems become dramatically advanced in terms of complexity, functionality, precision and so on. It is then obvious that the defense R&D of those requires systematic and efficient development tools enabling the effective management of the complexity, budget/cost, development time, and risk all together. One viable approach is known to be the development methods based on systems engineering, which is already proved to successful in U.S. In this paper, a systems engineering approach is studied to be used in the conceptual design of advanced weapon systems. The approach is utilizing some graphical models in the design phase. As a target system, an unmanned aerial vehicle system is considered and the standard SysML is also used as a modeling language to create models. The generated models have several known merits such as ease of understanding and communication. The interrelationships between the models and the design artifacts are identified, which should be useful in the generation of some design documents that are required in the defense R&D. The result reported here could be utilized in the further study that can eventually lead to a full-scale model-based systems engineering method.

Show us the Films: Transparency, National Security, and Disclosure of Information Collected by Advanced Weapon Systems under International Law

The advent of modern technology such as drones provides states with unique capabilities to acquire, with ease, high-quality information regarding acts performed by armed forces and agencies, such as (but not only) targeted killings. In some cases, this information can shed light on the facts of the case, when alleged violations of international humanitarian law or international human rights law have occurred and thus investigation is called for. However, although calls for disclosure are increasing, states are reluctant to disclose information relating to such activities. This article discusses potential sources for obligations of disclosure, whether to civil society or to certain international bodies such as the International Criminal Court. In essence, the article posits that disclosure obligations can derive from the principle of transparency, as it applies, inter alia, to investigations, augmented by an emerging positive right to receive information. These obligations must be balanced, in turn, with considerations of national security. The article suggests that this balance, across a wide spectrum of international contexts, should be conducted in light of standards of necessity, proportionality and specificity. Accordingly, blanket non-disclosure may constitute a violation of international law or result in factual inferences to the detriment of states or individuals.

Defense science and technology of the ROK and desirable directions for relevant R&D policies

Abstract The capacity of defense science and technology (S&T) at the level of an advanced nation is becoming an ever-more critical factor in the survival of the defense industry along with accumulation of military power. Until now, the development of advanced weapons systems and capabilities for essential technologies by the Republic of Korea (ROK) have remained at a relatively low level, due to the following factors: reliance on foreign nations for advanced weapon systems, research heavily focused on systems development as opposed to producing technologies, and a bifurcated structure of the Agency for Defense Development (ADD) managing research and development (R&D) on the one hand, and the defense industry taking on assembly and production on the other. In order to resolve this lagging in defense S&T standards, national S&T should be tied to and united with research in the defense sector; civilian resources should be astutely employed in a strategic manner; and cross-sector cooperation between the civilian and military sectors should be strengthened. Moreover, roles should be delegated accordingly between the state research facilities and the defense industries, while an R&D infrastructure based on development and accumulation of technologies should be established. The Ministry of National Defense (MND) has proposed a vision of securing “world-class defense science and technology capabilities,” and this can no doubt become a most formidable and valuable security asset for the ROK.

A Response to “Transnational Corruption in Weapons Procurement in East Asia”: Using Network Analysis to Better Explore Patterns of Corruption

Cotruption a persistent problem all over the world (Rose-Ackerman 2004): As the pace of international economic integration has quickened, corruption has increasingly carried transnational dimensions. Major multinational firms use their extensive networks of connections for economic gains and frequently disregard the moral implications of their behaviors. Transnational corruption has become a global issue with significant negative impact on the world economy. Rose-Ackerman (2004) estimated that in 2003 US$1 trillion was paid in bribes out of a $30 trillion world economy. However, sociological understanding of transnational corruption and the role of multinational firms in corruption rather limited. We know little about interconnections between major multinational firms and theit corruptive practices in various countries, especially in Asian countries (Elliot 1997). It necessary to extend our knowledge base through both quantitative and qualitative studies, especially in-depth case studies that can reveal what major causal factors affect the cortuption process. The timely study by Professor Sung begins to fill the current gap in the sociological literature. Sung listed some major factors that contributed to the transnational corruption case in Taiwan. First, China's constant push to deprive Taiwan of breathing space in the international arena and Taiwan's urgent need for advanced weapons to protect itself created an opportunity for arms sales and corruption. Second, the prolonged authoritarian rule by the Nationalists in Taiwan and its secretive unmonitored weapon procurement system were important contributing factors. Third, the emergence of the opposition party (the Democratic Progress Party) and lessening media control contributed to Taiwan's gradual progress toward democracy and made the revelation of cotruption cases possible. Finally, the judicial system in Taiwan was not fully independent and affected the outcome of the criminal investigation. Sung also examined the causal factors in France. He concluded that transnational corruption may occur but can certainly be reduced and controlled, and that Taiwan is now better equipped to prevent the repetition of a similar scandal because of a more transparent weapons procurement process and the Bush administration's support of Taiwan's need for advanced weapons systems. The study has contributed to the literature on transnational corruption in the following ways. First, it a challenging task for researchers to conduct solid studies of cross-country corruption, because they have to overcome language and cultural barriers to obtain necessary information (Gupta, De Mello, and Sharan 2001). In addition, access to the appropriate data a major stumbling block for researchers. Secretive transactions between corrupt officials and businessmen are unlikely to be open for public view, unless the involved parties are exposed by the media or are under criminal investigation. Even if the case under investigation, cultural contexts may affect how much information open to the public. Due to the gradual relaxation of media control and constituents' desire for more political participation in Taiwan, Sung was able to obtain relevant information from various sources in Taiwan. However, some Chinese officials were also actively involved in the scandal, but we have no information about their involvement. China's state-controlled media and nontransparent legal system are unlikely to reveal any detailed corruption information that may negatively affect the party's image. The author has overcome many obstacles to get necessaty information. Second, the case study methodologically appropriate. It allows the researcher to examine the complicated case in great detail. The author screened a large amount of information, placing it in context to examine the complicated incident of transnational corruption and to assess the impact of various social, international, and political factors on transnational corruption. …