Advanced Learners Research Articles

Enhancing Foreign Speakers’ Satisfaction in Learning Indonesian Language with a Gamified Multiplatform Approach

This study examines how gamification can improve the satisfaction level of foreign learners studying the Indonesian language using the innovative multiplatform application named Belajar Indo. In consideration of the Indonesian government’s heightened focus on language proficiency for foreign workers and students, this study examines the challenges encountered in Bahasa Indonesia for Foreign Speakers (BIPA) programs. Integrating gamified elements into a Progressive Web App (PWA) presents an engaging alternative to traditional learning resources, which frequently fall short in terms of interactivity and accessibility. Data gathered from surveys, online observation, and user engagement metrics indicate that gamification greatly improves learner motivation, resulting in a success rate of 93.51% and a Net Promoter Score (NPS) of 8.11. The findings demonstrate that gamification enhances language acquisition while simultaneously cultivating a greater enthusiasm for learning Indonesian, proving advantageous for both beginners and advanced learners. This study advances the domain of educational technology by presenting a model that integrates language acquisition with digital innovation, highlighting gamified learning as an effective instrument for foreign language education. Future recommendations involve fine-tuning user interface components to improve usability and maintain elevated engagement levels.

The effect of language proficiency, usage, and exposure on cognitive control: A study in early adulthood Chinese learners of English

Aims and Objectives/Purpose/Research Questions: This study investigated the effect of the specific L2 learning experience (i.e., usage, proficiency, and exposure) on cognitive performance in 121 Chinese learners of English. Design/Methodology/Approach: The participants were divided into three groups: beginning, intermediate, and advanced learners. They are homogeneous in background variables (e.g., cultural and educational environment) but heterogeneous in the L2 language experience. They performed three non-linguistic cognitive tasks, tapping into multiple dimensions of cognitive functions in visual and auditory domains. Data and Analysis: Linear mixed-effect models were applied to RT-based analysis (i.e., analysis based on Reaction Time), and linear regression models were used for accuracy-based analysis. In addition, further multiple stepwise regression analyses were conducted to explore the relationships between individuals’ demographics, language experience, and their performance on the attentional tasks. Findings/Conclusions: Three groups were comparable in background measures (e.g., socioeconomic status [SES]) and fundamental cognitive abilities (e.g., working memory and IQ), but differed in specific subcomponents of cognitive functions. Specifically, compared with beginning learners, advanced learners who had a longer length of L2 usage and higher proficiency showed better inhibitory control; intermediate learners who received intensive L2 exposure and had higher proficiency showed better-switching ability and attentional disengagement. Intermediate and advanced learners were comparable in cognitive performance. The results suggest that early adulthood L2 learners experience similar cognitive effects of bilingualism, which are modulated by specific language experience. Originality: This is one of the first bilingual studies to incorporate both visual and auditory cognitive functions, while providing additional analyses to investigate the other components of cognitive control. Significance/Implications: The results contribute to the understanding of the key aspects of the L2 learning experience that contribute to the emergence of the cognitive effects of young adult learners.

Developmental trajectories of discourse features by age and learning environment

Abstract This study investigated the development of discourse features in young learners of a foreign language (YLLs), focusing on their complexity, accuracy, fluency (CAF), and vocabulary. The study also examined the relationship between CAF and communicative adequacy, and the influence of YLLs’ socio-economic status (SES) on discourse development. The participants were Grades 5, 8, and 10 learners of English in China (32 students in each grade level) who were selected through a stratified random sampling from a larger project and 15 advanced adult learners of English as a comparative group. They engaged in a story-telling task using a wordless picture book. The participants’ communicative adequacy was operationalized as the narrative structure based on story grammar, and 17 discourse features representing CAF were examined across grade levels and SES groups. A series of ANOVA and correlational analyses found that CAF measures generally showed significant differences by grade with some varied patterns reflecting the multidimensional natures of CAF constructs. SES effects appeared in secondary school levels. CAF measures were not interrelated significantly in Grade 5 but showed greater interrelatedness within and across dimensions among students in higher grades. Fluency contributed most to the communicative adequacy measured by story grammar, followed by vocabulary.

중·고급 단계 한국어 학습자의 조사 결합 사용 양상 연구: ‘까지’와 ‘만’이 포함된 조사 결합을 중심으로

Objectives The purpose of this study is to analyze the usage patterns of particle-combination that include ‘kkaji(까지)’ and ‘man(만)’ by intermediate and advanced Korean language learners and to suggest educational recommendations for teaching particle-combination. Methods For this purpose, four Korean language textbooks and 10 sets of TOPIK(Test of Proficiency in Korean) past exam questions were analyzed to examine the types and contents of particle-combinations. Based on the analyzed educational materials, the study classified the types of particle-combinations including ‘kkaji(까지)’ and ‘man(만)’ and designed a grammaticality judgment test. This test was conducted with 118 intermediate and advanced Korean learners at Korean language education institutes affiliated with universities in Busan and Seoul to investigate their usage patterns of particle combinations.. Results The analysis of Korean language education materials revealed a total of 29 types of particle-combinations including ‘kkaji(까지)’ and ‘man(만)’ appearing 962 times in total, but it was found that educational contents on these combinations is very limited in Korean language textbooks. The grammaticality judgment test conducted with learners revealed errors in the order of ‘omission > substitution > sequence > form > addition’. Learners unfamiliar with particle-combination often avoided their use, leading to omission, or failed to use them correctly in accordance with combination rules or contexts. Errors also included incorrect adherence to the order and form of combinations as well as unnecessary addition of particles. Conclusions The study confirmed the need for explicit instruction, education that simultaneously considers meaning and form, and integrated education that combines particle-combination with other functional areas for learners lack of awareness and learning experience on particle-combination. Furthermore, the study proposed the development of a comprehensive list of particle-combination and the necessity for further research on the instruction.

생성 AI ChatGPT의 활용이 한국어 쓰기의 자기주도학습 능력 및 쓰기 능력에 미치는 영향: 중국인 고급 학습자를 대상으로

Objectives This study examined the changes in the self-directed learning ability and Korean writing ability of advanced Chinese learners of Korean through the use of generative AI ChatGPT for Korean writing. Methods In this study, 19 advanced Korean learners from China progressed through three stages - planning, writing, and evaluation - engaging in Korean writing activities using generative AI ChatGPT. The learners conducted pre-test and post-test to measure their self-directed learning abilities before and after performing Korean writing tasks using generative AI ChatGPT, and analyzed the differences using the non-parametric Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Furthermore, the learners calculated evaluation scores for pre-writing and post-writing on the same topic and analyzed the differences using the non-parametric Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Results There were no significant differences observed in the self-directed learning abilities, including self- awareness, learning strategies, learning activities, evaluation, and interpersonal skills, of Chinese learners who participated in Korean writing tasks using generative AI ChatGPT. Furthermore, there was no significant difference in the total Korean writing scores of learners before and after utilizing generative AI ChatGPT. However, a significant improvement was observed in the language usage domain, one of the four sub-factors of writing ability. In particular, there was a significant improvement in “language accuracy” within the language usage domain, indicating a notable enhancement in the use of advanced vocabulary and grammar compared to before utilizing ChatGPT. Conclusions This study experimentally analyzes the changes in self-directed learning ability and Korean writing ability of advanced Chinese learners after performing writing tasks using AI ChatGPT in the field of Korean language education. It provides insights into the educational impacts of ChatGPT and provides suggestions for enhancement.

Frequency of segmental sound errors among intermediate and advanced Korean learners from Myanmar

Frequency of segmental sound errors among intermediate and advanced Korean learners from Myanmar

Multimodal Reading Strategies in Native and Advanced L2 Korean Speakers: An Eye-Tracking Study of Text, Image, and Auditory Integration

Objectives: This study investigates the impact of auditory input, specifically within the Reading While Listening (RWL) framework, on the comprehension of multimodal texts among native Korean speakers (L1) and advanced Korean learners (L2). Additionally, it explores differential reading strategies and the influence of working memory (WM) capacity on the processing of multimodal content.Methods: Eye-tracking technology was utilized to examine the eye movement patterns of 28 participants (14 L1, 14 L2) as they engaged with multimodal texts consisting of written, visual, and auditory components. Key metrics— including dwell time, fixation count, and saccadic movements—were analyzed to gain insights into the cognitive processing behaviors of both groups. Furthermore, WM capacity was assessed to determine its effect on the adoption of specific reading strategies. Results: The findings revealed that both L1 and L2 learners predominantly focused on textual rather than visual information, with L2 participants exhibiting significantly higher fixation counts and longer fixation durations, indicative of elevated cognitive load. In terms of strategy use, L2 learners relied more on localized, compensatory strategies (e.g., keywordtriggered switching), whereas L1 participants more frequently employed integrative strategies such as content integration reading. Conclusion: The results suggest that while auditory input in RWL contexts can facilitate multimodal comprehension, it does not fully alleviate the heightened cognitive demands observed among L2 learners. Instructional approaches aiming to address these challenges may benefit from incorporating explicit strategy training and considering learners’ WM capacity to optimize multimodal reading outcomes.

Temporal measurements for Second Language speaking fluency

This study investigates the relationship between temporal measurements and second language (L2) speaking fluency, focusing on speech rate (SR), mean length of utterance (MLU), and pausing patterns (PP). The study recruited 60 advanced English L2 adult learners (male and female) who were presented with a picture book where each page included only one picture representing a specific sequence of the story's development. The participants’ main task was to orally describe the story where their oral descriptions were electronically recorded using PsychoPy software. The primary goal was to determine which of the above-mentioned temporal measurements significantly influence L2 speaking assessment. These participants’ spoken samples were evaluated by five English language instructors using standardized L2 speaking assessment rubric. A statistical analysis was conducted to examine the effect of these three temporal measurements on L2 speaking assessment. The results showed that SR (average words per minute) and PP (average pause duration per minute), but not mean length of utterance (MLU), were significant factors of L2 speaking fluency assessment. However, the interaction between these factors was not significant. That is, SR and PP factors provide a listener with a positive impression about L2 speakers’ speaking performance. These results are consistent with other studies that examined L2 speaking fluency. The findings also underline the importance of listeners’ impression when it comes to L2 speaking assessment. In addition, the study highlights the effect of temporal measurements on L2 speaking assessments and provides insights for both evaluators and learners on the factors affecting L2 fluency assessment.

Speak Up! Empowering Vocational EFL Students through Oral Corrective Feedback

Given the significance of corrective feedback in enhancing language learners’ speaking skills, especially in boosting accuracy and motivation, this study aims to examine the impact of direct oral corrective feedback (OCF) on Indonesian EFL learners. While research has shown that teacher feedback plays a crucial role in student performance, there is limited insight into how students interpret and engage with feedback—a factor essential to its effectiveness. Employing a descriptive qualitative research method, this study involved 39 vocational school students from SMK Medikacom in Bandung, Indonesia. Data were collected through classroom observations and semi-structured interviews, enabling a thorough exploration of students’ responses, behaviours, and attitudes toward Oral Corrective Feedback (OCF). Oral Corrective Feedback (OCF) improved students' speaking skills, with Recast, Clarification Request, and Repetition being the most common types and Recast being the most effective for error correction without disrupting communication. Students reported gains in pronunciation, grammar, fluency, confidence, and teacher-student rapport. Some students, however, felt discomfort with feedback, highlighting the need for a supportive, non-judgmental approach to prevent negative emotional impacts. This study suggests that while implicit feedback benefits advanced learners, lower-proficiency students may need more explicit correction. To maximise OCF’s impact, educators are encouraged to tailor feedback to individual proficiency levels and focus on fostering supportive, adaptive classroom environments.

Using word order cues to predict verb class in L2 Spanish

Abstract Prediction is a crucial mechanism of language comprehension. Our research question asked whether learners of Spanish were capable of using word order cues to predict the semantic class of the upcoming verb, and how this ability develops with proficiency. To answer this question, we conducted a self-paced reading study with three L2 Spanish groups at different proficiency levels and one native control group. Among the advanced L2 learners and native speakers, we found that reading times increased after the verb appeared in a word order not strongly associated with its semantic class. Because the only cue to the sentences’ word order was the presence or absence of the object marker a before the first noun, we suggest that these groups use this morphosyntactic cue to anticipate the semantic class of the upcoming verb. However, this pattern of processing behavior was not detected in our less experienced L2 groups.

Study of EFL Students' Argumentative writing skills through online collaborative writing activities

This study explored the impact of online collaborative writing on EFL students' argumentative writing abilities and their attitudes toward using this method to enhance their skills. The participants consisted of twenty undergraduate students from a writing classroom at the University of Phayao, selected through purposive sampling. The twenty students were categorized into three proficiency levels: advanced, intermediate, and novice learners. The selected participants were then divided into 5 heterogeneous groups to collaboratively compose argumentative paragraph writings. This study, employing a mixed-methods approach, combines both quantitative and qualitative techniques. The instruments consisted of six lesson plans, pre-test and post-test, 4 argumentative writing assignments, a semi-structured interview, and a questionnaire. The study evaluated an online collaborative writing activity to determine how proficiency levels affected both group and individual writing performance. The results of the students' argumentative writing post-test were higher than their pre-test scores across all proficiency levels. The highest scores in students' argumentative writing were found in the group performance, followed by the individual post-test scores, respectively. The semi-structured interview showed that online collaborative writing activities improve argumentative writing by promoting group brainstorming, idea sharing, and critical thinking. This approach enhances students' analysis, evaluation, and content-creation skills, leading to more effective group work. Additionally, online collaborative writing simplifies tasks like gathering information and using various functions, making the writing process more efficient.

The Model “SMART”- an Innovation for Achieving Future Success in TVET Students: An Empirical study

The “SMART” school innovation project represents a significant advancement in addressing the challenges faced by students in technical vocational education and training (TVET) programs, particularly concerning their mathematical proficiency. Recent analyses of state matriculation exam results have highlighted a troubling decline in mathematics achievement among students, which poses a substantial barrier to their academic and professional success in TVET learning classes. In response to this issue, the SMART project has been designed to enhance students’ academic performance while cultivating a more inclusive and engaging learning environment. At the core of the SMART project is a differentiated instruction approach to those groups’ students according to their mathematical abilities. This method allows educators to tailor their teaching strategies to meet the diverse needs of students, ensuring that both advanced learners and those struggling with foundational concepts receive appropriate support. By creating specific groups- advanced, intermediate, and those with significant gaps—and regrouping students from different professions into new classes, the project enables targeted interventions that address individual learning needs. This approach allows for simultaneous instruction in mathematics across all new mixed-profession classes, enabling personalized support due to the equal curriculum and equal allocation of hours. This structured grouping not only helps in identifying and addressing knowledge deficits but also promotes a collaborative learning atmosphere where students can thrive. The project emphasizes the importance of regular progress monitoring, with systematic evaluations conducted every two months. This ongoing assessment enables educators to make timely adjustments to teaching strategies and group placements, ensuring that students are continuously challenged and supported. Furthermore, the project incorporates innovative and interactive teaching methods designed to engage students actively in the learning process, moving away from traditional, monotonous approaches. By establishing a comprehensive framework for educational improvement, the project not only seeks to elevate students’ proficiency in mathematics but also aims to create a holistic approach to learning that prioritizes the diverse needs of all learners. The SMART project is poised to make a lasting impact on the educational landscape, equipping students with the necessary skills and confidence to excel in their future studies and professional endeavors. By addressing the root causes of low mathematics achievement and fostering a supportive learning environment, the project aims to prepare students for the challenges they will face in both their academic and career paths.

Level-Up Learning: Using Games to Teach English Across Student Levels

This study explores the use of gamification in teaching English to 70 students in Azerbaijan, aged 11 to 17, with varying proficiency levels ranging from below A1 to B1. Tailored games were implemented to address the needs of beginners, intermediates, and advanced learners, fostering engagement, vocabulary acquisition, grammar improvement, and critical thinking. The results highlight the effectiveness of level-appropriate games in enhancing language skills, despite challenges such as diverse preferences and proficiency gaps. Recommendations for integrating digital gaming platforms and studying long-term impacts are provided to guide future research and practice.

From Monosyllabic to Disyllabic: A Study on Learners' Syllable Structure Preferences in Same-Morpheme Noun Acquisition by Indo-European Chinese Language Learners

This research investigates the monosyllabic and disyllabic syllable patterns that Indo-European Chinese language learners prefer for same-morpheme nouns. In a qualitative and quantitative study that used a mix of methods, information was collected from participants at beginner, intermediate and high-level proficiency levels to test for syllable structure preferences. Preferences were measured on tasks like the Noun Repetition Task and the Structure Selection Task, and examined for correlations with proficiency. The findings suggest that beginners learn more strongly disyllabic structures, possibly due to being exposed to polysyllabic structures in their own native tongues, whereas intermediate learners gradually move towards monosyllabic forms. Advanced learners favour monosyllabic forms with greater phonological flexibility. Statistical tests such as correlation and Chi-square test showed these patterns to be statistically significant. These results provide interesting data on phonological acquisition in second-language acquisition, which have implications for how language teachers can deliver instruction that accommodates learners proficiency-based syllable-construction preferences.

Abbreviation and its Place in the Word-Formation System of Contemporary English Language

Abstract The primary aim of this research is to study abbreviation as a word-formation process and identify its specificity. To achieve this aim, the following objectives were formulated and addressed: identification of the main methods of word formation in contemporary English; determination of the place of abbreviation in the word-formation system of modern English; identification of the main types of abbreviations; description of the characteristics of each kind; analysis of the structural and semantic organization of initialisms in contemporary English. The research was based on a complete Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2023) sampling method and involved the analysis of 635 initial abbreviations that were categorized according to their structural and semantic characteristics.

The Use of the Adverbial Case Marker '-에' by English, Chinese, and Japanese-Speaking Learners of Korean: Focusing on Beginner, Intermediate, and Advanced Learners

The Use of the Adverbial Case Marker '-에' by English, Chinese, and Japanese-Speaking Learners of Korean: Focusing on Beginner, Intermediate, and Advanced Learners

Teaching Shakespeare in China with a Communicative Approach

This article outlines the necessity and challenges of teaching Shakespeare to EFL students in China. It argues that teaching Shakespeare’s plays fulfills the multidimensional purposes of English learning including developing linguistic, literary and cultural competence, as well as facilitating critical capacity and personal enrichment, which are indispensable for advanced language learners. Through the introduction of the teaching procedures of Shakespeare’s Henry V and its two film versions, which are designed within a communicative orientation, it concludes that Content-Based Instruction (CBI) and Task-based instruction (TBI) are central to fulfilling the aforementioned goals in literature teaching, and can cope-well with the tough challenges in teaching a difficult author to EFL students.

Effects of input frequency and microvariation on knowledge of negative inversion in L2 English

Abstract The present study investigates whether L2 learners of English distinguish between (un)grammatical word orders after fronted negative adverbials to identify negative inversion. Previous research on transfer and resetting of verb second (V2) in L1 German–L2 English is extended to explore residual V2 in the form of negative inversion. An acceptability judgment task elicited sentence ratings from advanced German-speaking learners of English for fronted negative adverbials with local and sentential scope. In addition, corpus frequency data of these negative adverbials were related to the learners’ ratings in order to investigate the potential role of input effects. Results suggest that linguistic constraints on microvariation with respect to fronting negative adverbials are broadly in place for learners at this proficiency level, as the scope of fronted negation has an effect on acceptability of negative inversion. Continued significant differences in acceptability judgements of advanced learners compared to native speakers indicate, however, that learners have not completely converged on the target pattern of microvariation. This is related to frequency and reliability of input.

Transitive Phrasal Verbs in English–Chinese Learners’ Dictionaries: A Syntactic Perspective

Abstract This article explores the treatment of transitive phrasal verbs (TPVs) in English–Chinese learners’ dictionaries (ECLDs). Despite the syntactic and semantic complexities of TPVs, research on the systematic treatment of TPVs in ECLDs has been limited. By annotating syntactic structures, ECLDs can present the semantic and pragmatic characteristics of TPVs more accurately and assist learners in using appropriate syntactic structures to communicate deeper meanings in language output. Phrasal verbs (PVs) are a category of verb combinations with distinct syntactic structures, functioning as single-word lexical verbs despite being multiword verbs in form. A test administered to intermediate and advanced English learners revealed that Chinese EFL learners made frequent mistakes in using PVs, reflecting the confusion and uncertainty surrounding these structures. This paper presents a comparison of the different classifications of multiword verbs present in ECLDs, arguing that these variations have only further muddied the waters with relation to PVs. Based on an analysis of the unique syntactic features of PVs, it proposes that ECLDs can enhance English learners’ understanding of TPVs through the systematic use of tables, annotations, and examples.

Strategic use of machine translation

Abstract The development of generative artificial intelligence (AI) and its associated tools has revolutionised the learning and use of foreign languages (L2). One such tool is machine translation (MT), which has become increasingly popular among university students worldwide, spurring research on MT use in L2 writing. However, previous research has primarily focused on the writing products of intermediate or advanced L2 learners, neglecting the writing process with MT of students with limited L2 proficiency. Therefore, this case study aimed to qualitatively explore how the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) A2 university students employ strategies for L2 writing with MT and how their strategies change after strategy instruction. Seven participants completed writing tasks on a PC before, immediately after, and four weeks after three one-hour out-of-class instruction sessions based on the Strategic Content Learning (SCL) approach. Their writing process was screen-recorded, followed by stimulated recall interviews to elicit their strategies, which were coded and categorised using a framework by O’Malley and Chamot (1990). The results showed an increase in students’ elaborate use of strategies after instruction. In particular, strategy clusters were observed for all participants, demonstrating their cognitive engagement in the writing process. Furthermore, first-language (L1)-related strategies were used more frequently post-instruction, indicating learners’ efforts to create translation-friendly L1 input for MT. The findings suggest that teaching MT-use strategies is crucial to fostering learners’ active engagement in the L2 writing process in a technology-enhanced learning environment.