Adult Word Research Articles

Discovering and accounting for limitations in applications of theories of word reading acquisition.

More attention to the discovery of the limitations of current theories of word reading acquisition would enable progress in development of theories with a wider and more varied range of valid and useful applications. This general opinion is illustrated here with work that makes such an attempt. There have been recent occasional attempts to apply computational connectionist models of adult word reading in simulations of children's normal progress in word and pseudoword reading (Hutzler et al., 2004; Powell et al., 2006), but they failed unless modifications were made that included adding “context-free” letter-sound correspondences to the initial training of the model. Taught phonics sounds for letters are such, as they are not bound to features within a word, such as position and/or the context of other (adjacent or otherwise) letter-sound correspondences of the word. Adding the phonic sounds was justified as a representation of the way children learnt because it was how they were taught reading. This introduces a major potential limitation in application of the model, in so far as it was improved for only one type of teaching, that with phonics. A new multiple-route theory (Grainger et al., 2012) of learning to read words has been proposed which may appear to avoid that problem but much of the learning of the beginner reader is modeled as in the theory of Share (1995). This, however, also requires full knowledge of “context-free” letter sounds for the initial development of word reading (Share, p. 164), as does the widely recognized theory of Ehri (1999, 2005, 2012). The illustration for my opinion focuses on the discovery of the limitations of this feature common to these theories, and on development of theory that accounts for evidence beyond the limitations.

Emergence of Reading and Writing in Illiterate Adults After Matching-to-Sample Tasks

Reading and writing are behaviors that provide an individual with the opportunity for inclusion in many social environments. Despite the importance of these behaviors, statistical indices show that, in Brazil, 8.6% of the people aged 15-24 are illiterate. The purpose of this manuscript, which is divided into two studies, was to assess the effects of a Portuguese language reading curriculum for simple (Study 1) and complex words (Study 2) in illiterate adults. Four participants took part in each study. In both studies, reading was taught mainly by training dictated words to printed words relations. Overall, there was an increase in the percentage of correct responses in reading and writing tasks when pre-tests and post-tests were compared; results were more consistent in reading tasks. Future studies should continue to investigate procedures with these goals for this population.

Linguistic Input, Electronic Media, and Communication Outcomes of Toddlers With Hearing Loss

The objectives of this study were to examine the quantity of adult words, adult-child conversational turns, and electronic media in the auditory environments of toddlers who are hard of hearing (HH) and to examine whether these factors contributed to variability in children's communication outcomes. Participants were 28 children with mild to severe hearing loss. Full-day recordings of children's auditory environments were collected within 6 months of their second birthdays by using Language ENvironment Analysis technology. The system analyzes full-day acoustic recordings, yielding estimates of the quantity of adult words, conversational turns, and electronic media exposure in the recordings. Children's communication outcomes were assessed via the receptive and expressive scales of the Mullen Scales of Early Learning at 2 years of age and the Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language at 3 years of age. On average, the HH toddlers were exposed to approximately 1400 adult words per hour and participated in approximately 60 conversational turns per hour. An average of 8% of each recording was classified as electronic media. However, there was considerable within-group variability on all three measures. Frequency of conversational turns, but not adult words, was positively associated with children's communication outcomes at 2 and 3 years of age. Amount of electronic media exposure was negatively associated with 2-year-old receptive language abilities; however, regression results indicate that the relationship was fully mediated by the quantity of conversational turns. HH toddlers who were engaged in more conversational turns demonstrated stronger linguistic outcomes than HH toddlers who were engaged in fewer conversational turns. The frequency of these interactions was found to be decreased in households with high rates of electronic media exposure. Optimal language-learning environments for HH toddlers include frequent linguistic interactions between parents and children. To support this goal, parents should be encouraged to reduce their children's exposure to electronic media.

Adult Talk in the NICU With Preterm Infants and Developmental Outcomes

The goal of this study was to test the association of mean adult word counts at 32 and 36 weeks' postmenstrual age in the NICU with Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, 3rd Edition (Bayley-III), cognitive and language scores. It was hypothesized that preterm infants exposed to higher word counts would have higher cognitive and language scores at 7 and 18 months' corrected age. This prospective cohort study included 36 preterm infants with a birth weight ≤1250 g. Sixteen-hour recordings were made in the NICU by using a digital language processor at 32 and 36 weeks' postmenstrual age. Regression analyses were performed on adult word count per hour, with Bayley-III measures correcting for birth weight. Adult word counts in the NICU were positively correlated with 7- and 18-month Bayley-III scores. For the 32-week recording, in regression analyses adjusting for birth weight, adult word count per hour independently accounted for 12% of the variance in language composite scores (P = .04) and 20% of the variance in expressive communication scores at 18 months (P = .008). For the 36-week recording, adult word count per hour independently accounted for 26% of the variance in cognitive composite scores at 7 months (P = .0049). Increased amount of parent talk with preterm infants in the NICU was associated with higher 7- and 18-month corrected age Bayley-III language and cognitive scores. These findings offer an opportunity for language intervention starting in the NICU.

Masked priming and ERPs dissociate maturation of orthographic and semantic components of visual word recognition in children

This study examined the time-course of reading single words in children and adults using masked repetition priming and the recording of event-related potentials. The N250 and N400 repetition priming effects were used to characterize form- and meaning-level processing, respectively. Children had larger amplitude N250 effects than adults for both shorter and longer duration primes. Children did not differ from adults on the N400 effect. The difference on the N250 suggests that automaticity for form processing is still maturing in children relative to adults, while the lack of differentiation on the N400 effect suggests that meaning processing is relatively mature by late childhood. The overall similarity in the children's repetition priming effects to adults' effects is in line with theories of reading acquisition, according to which children rapidly transition to an orthographic strategy for fast access to semantic information from print.

Investigating the influence of a glucose drink on emotional memory

The ingestion of a glucose drink has been shown to reliably facilitate declarative memory. However, it remains unclear as to how circulatory levels of glucose influences memory for emotional material, with contradictory findings reported in the literature. Emotional material evokes a natural memory advantage, with measurable increases in circulatory glucose levels being observed in response to emotional words (in the absence of glucose administration). Increased glucose levels (naturally occurring or through an intervention) however, have not been shown to reliably facilitate emotional material. This randomised, placebo-controlled, crossover design, was employed to further investigate the influence of glucose ingestion on memory for emotional words in healthy adults (N = 29; age: 18–49 years). This population is most susceptible to glucose facilitation during more cognitively demanding tasks. A dual task manipulation (alternating hand movement sequences) was introduced during the encoding phase. The glucose drink did not influence memory for emotional words in this study. A main effect of emotion was found, with memory for emotional words (positive and negative) being greater than for neutral words, both at immediate and delayed recall. The results contrast with similar research, which has previously observed improved memory for only negative items. It may be that the memory measures utilised in this study were not sensitive enough to detect any subtle changes to memory induced by a glucose load. Differential physiological responses were observed in response to drink type. Heart rate was found to decrease upon presentation of negative words, following placebo but not glucose. The mechanism underlying this effect is unclear.

The importance of language in the home for school‐age children with permanent hearing loss

To determine the characteristics of the natural spoken language environment associated with better language skills at school age of children with permanent hearing loss (HL) screened in a newborn hearing screen programme. A language processor recorded language environment including child vocalisations (CVs), conversational turns (CTs), adult word count (AWC), percentage of language and percentage of silence in 23 children with HL and 41 hearing controls. Relationships of language environment scores with Reynell language scores were analysed. Children with HL had significantly lower Reynell comprehension scores (15-25 points; p=0.0001) and expressive scores (7-12 points; NS) than hearing children. In regression analyses for the children with HL, after adjusting for age of entry to early intervention and stay in a NICU, every increase in ten percentage points of language in the home was associated with 7.2 points higher comprehension score (p=0.027) and 9.99 points higher expressive score (p=0.006). After adjusting for nonverbal intelligence, similar independent effects of the language environment on both comprehension (p=0.027) and expressive scores (p=0.006) were identified. A rich language environment in the home is associated with better language abilities, which are necessary for academic success for children with permanent HL at school age.

Steps along a Continuum of Word Knowledge: Later Lexical Development through the Lens of Receptive Judgments

Usage patterns for common nouns continue to change well past the early years of language acquisition in free naming (Andersen, 1975; Ameel, Malt, & Storms, 2008). The current research evaluates whether this continued evolution is shown in receptive judgments as well, given their differing cognitive demands. We found an extended learning trajectory for children aged 7–13 years old. In contrast to the over- and underextensions found in Ameel et al.’s free-naming task, however, only overextensions were found. Children’s lexical categories showed initial overlap, but with age the overlap gradually disappeared and the categories became more distinct. The cognitive demands of production influence the particular deviations from adult usage that appear in free naming, but even for receptive competence, acquiring full adult word knowledge and the ability to use it in different ways is a lengthy process that requires acquisition and consolidation of knowledge at multiple levels.

Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the school and home language environments of preschool-aged children with ASD

The purpose of this research was to begin to characterize and compare the school and home language environments of 10 preschool-aged children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Naturalistic language samples were collected from each child, utilizing Language ENvironment Analysis (LENA) digital voice recorder technology, at 3-month intervals over the course of one year. LENA software was used to identify 15-min segments of each sample that represented the highest number of adult words used during interactions with each child for all school and home language samples. Selected segments were transcribed and analyzed using Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (SALT). LENA data was utilized to evaluate quantitative characteristics of the school and home language environments and SALT data was utilized to evaluate quantitative and qualitative characteristics of language environment. Results revealed many similarities in home and school language environments including the degree of semantic richness, and complexity of adult language, types of utterances, and pragmatic functions of utterances used by adults during interactions with child participants. Study implications and recommendations for future research are discussed.Learning outcomes: The reader will be able to, (1) describe how two language sampling technologies can be utilized together to collect and analyze language samples, (2) describe characteristics of the school and home language environments of young children with ASD, and (3) identify environmental factors that may lead to more positive expressive language outcomes of young children with ASD.

Pilot testing of a parent-directed intervention (Project ASPIRE) for underserved children who are deaf or hard of hearing

This pilot study explored the potential for Project ASPIRE to effect behavior change in a sample of 11 parents of children with hearing loss who were from typically underserved populations, such as families from backgrounds of low socioeconomic status or families who speak English as a second language. The study consisted of one education session, five 16-hour home audio environment recordings, and four linguistic feedback reviews. The educational session focused on child language development and early language environment enrichment strategies. Parents received ‘quantitative linguistic feedback’ on the home audio recordings to further support behavior change through increased awareness of linguistic behaviors. The audio recordings were completed with the Language ENvironment Analysis system. This system measured parental linguistic behavior (adult word count or AWC), child linguistic behavior (child vocalization count or CVC), and child–parent interactive linguistic behavior (conversational turn count or CTC). Post-intervention both CTC and CVC had increased significantly compared to pre-intervention recording counts ( p < 0.01; p < 0.05). Increase in AWC trended towards significance between pre- and post-intervention recordings ( p < 0.1). These preliminary findings support ‘quantitative linguistic feedback’ as a viable behavior change strategy for enriching children’s early language environments through parental linguistic behaviors.

Enhancing the learning of new words using an errorless learning procedure: Evidence from typical adults

Two experiments compared the efficacy of errorless and errorful training procedures in the acquisition of novel words in typical adults. One experiment involved learning novel names for novel objects, while a second involved learning obscure English words and their definitions. In both studies the errorless method led to significantly better learning as assessed by an immediate cued recall test. The errorless advantage was characterised by a reduction in extra-experimental intrusion errors and was still present when learning was re-tested 3–4 days after training. In contrast there was no errorless advantage in recognition of word-to-object pairings. Taken together, these results suggest that errorless learning procedures improve retrieval by leading to the creation of better-specified, retrievable representations in long-term memory.

Child and classroom characteristics associated with the adult language provided to preschoolers with autism spectrum disorder

The aim of this study was to examine associations between the automated Language ENvironment Analysis (LENA) system adult word count (AWC) variable and characteristics of classrooms (e.g., teacher burnout) and preschoolers with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (e.g., autism severity). The AWC samples from 67 preschoolers with ASD were collected during typical morning classroom routines (e.g., center time). Results indicated that AWC was positively associated with children's cognitive ability and negatively associated teacher burnout and adult to student with ASD ratio. Lower adult to children with ASD ratio (i.e., fewer adults relative to students with ASD) resulted in preschoolers receiving less adult language. Additional factors thought to be related to child and classroom characteristics affecting the adult language directed at children with ASD are discussed.

Effects of Neighborhood Density on Adult Word Repetition.

Presumable lexical competition has been found to result in higher perceptual accuracy for words with few versus many neighbors. Previous studies have typically only analyzed the lexical-semantic level, however. In order to also explore the possibility of phonological effects, a word repetition task was administered to 46 typical adults in which 80 stimuli differed only in neighborhood density. In contrast to previous studies, verbal responses were elicited in order to analyze productions holistically and segmentally at the phonological level. An additional error analysis examined differences in neighborhood density between target words and substitutions. Findings revealed that words with more neighbors facilitated recognition, and were more accurately repeated than those with fewer neighbors. When a target word was misperceived, its substitution tended to be higher in neighborhood density, unrelated to word frequency. In order to interpret these results, an account of lexical competition is re-visited with consideration of characteristics of the lexicon discovered using graph theory (Vitevitch, 2008).

An Exploratory Study of “Quantitative Linguistic Feedback”

A child’s early language environment is critical to his or her life-course trajectory. Quantitative linguistic feedback utilizes the Language ENvironment Analysis (LENA) technology as a tool to analyze verbal interactions and reinforce behavior change. This exploratory pilot study evaluates the feasibility and efficacy of a novel behavior-change strategy, quantitative linguistic feedback, to influence adult linguistic behavior and, as a result, a child’s early language environment. Baseline LENA outcome measures (i.e., adult word count [AWC] and conversational turn count [CTC]) were obtained from a diverse sample of 17 nonparental caregivers and their typically developing children (charges) ages 10 to 40 months. Caregivers participated in a one-time educational intervention focusing on enriching a child’s home language environment, interpreting feedback from the baseline LENA recordings, and setting language goals for the following session. Post-intervention, six additional LENA recordings were obtained weekly to measure linguistic behavior. Caregivers showed a significant and prolonged increase from mean baseline to mean postintervention AWC and CTC as measured by LENA–AWC: mean difference = 395 words per hour, 31.6% increase, t = 3.29, p < .01; CTC: mean difference = 14 turns per hour, 24.9% increase, t = 3.54, p < .01. Preliminary results indicate that a one-time educational intervention combined with quantitative linguistic feedback may have a positive effect on caregiver language output, thus enhancing the child’s language environment. This study represents an initial step in the development and evaluation of a novel behavior-change strategy. We propose that quantitative linguistic feedback will add significantly to the arsenal of clinical and research tools used to evaluate and enrich a child’s early language environment.

Semantic influence on stuttering ocurrance in adults who stutter and who do not stutter

Background and Aim: Studying the various aspects of stuttering is necessary for better understanding of complex and multi -factorial nature of stuttering. Therefore, researching stuttering from a linguistic perspective and the effect of linguistic factors on it has particular importance. The goal of this study was to investigate non- fluency frequency of words and non- words in Persian speaking adults who stutter and who do not stutter. Materials and Methods: In this research, 15 Farsi speaking adults who did not stuttered (+ 17 years old) were matched in age (±7 months) and sex, with 15 adults who stutter. For this study, two lists of words and non- words were prepared. 60 words containing 2 6-syllables with various frequency of occurrence in Farsi were selected. Then, 60 non- words were made based on words that at least 50 percent of their phonemes were changed. Participants repeated words and non- words and data was collected and analyzed. Results: Findings from this study showed that non- fluency frequency on words and non- words in adults who stutter was significantly higher than adults who do not stutter . Other findings indicate that the ratio of non- fluency occurrence on words and non- words was significantly different on words and non- words (P< 0/05). Conclusion: The results of this study indicate a significant increase in non- fluency frequency on non- words compared to words in adults who stutter and who do not stutter. Comparison between stuttering and non- stuttering shows that in repeating both lists, a non- fluency increase in adults who stutter is remarkably higher. In addition, the ratio of non- fluency occurrence on words and non- words is significantly higher in adults who stutter. Key words: semantic, stuttering,nonfluency, word and nonword repetation

The joint development of hemispheric lateralization for words and faces.

Consistent with long-standing findings from behavioral studies, neuroimaging investigations have identified a region of the inferior temporal cortex that, in adults, shows greater face selectivity in the right than left hemisphere and, conversely, a region that shows greater word selectivity in the left than right hemisphere. What has not been determined is how this pattern of mature hemispheric specialization emerges over the course of development. The present study examines the hemispheric superiority for faces and words in children, young adolescents and adults in a discrimination task in which stimuli are presented briefly in either hemifield. Whereas adults showed the expected left and right visual field superiority for face and word discrimination, respectively, the young adolescents demonstrated only the right-field superiority for words and no field superiority for faces. Although the children's overall accuracy was lower than that of the older groups, like the young adolescents, they exhibited a right visual field superiority for words but no field superiority for faces. Interestingly, the emergence of face lateralization was correlated with reading competence, measured on an independent standardized test, after regressing out age, quantitative reasoning scores, and face discrimination accuracy. Taken together, these findings suggest that the hemispheric organization of face and word recognition do not develop independently and that word lateralization, which emerges earlier, may drive later face lateralization. A theoretical account in which competition for visual representations unfolds over the course of development is proposed to account for the findings.

Using Language ENvironment Analysis to Improve Outcomes for Children Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing

Very little is known about the language environments of children in the United States in non-English-speaking homes. There is currently no published research that analyzes deaf or hard of hearing children in Spanish-speaking households, although the Colorado Home Intervention Program demographics indicate that these households account for 10 to 15% of the population of children who are deaf or hard of hearing. In other geographic regions in the United States, it is likely that the population of deaf and hard of hearing children from Spanish-speaking homes is considerably larger. The Spanish-speaking population in the United States has grown considerably within the last 5 to 10 years and will continue to expand. For these children to receive adequate treatment, research must be conducted to understand their language environment. The Language ENvironment Analysis (LENA) System uses a small recording device to collect, analyze, and sort a child's language environment into multiple categories and analyzes variables such as child vocalizations, adult words, and conversational turn taking. The normative data for the LENA System are from families who are English-speaking. The article demonstrates the feasibility of using the LENA System to gain understanding of the language environment of a child who is deaf or hard of hearing in a Spanish-speaking household.

Quantity of Parental Language in the Home Environments of Hard-of-Hearing 2-Year-Olds

Automated analyses of full-day recordings were used to determine whether young children who are hard-of-hearing (HH) received similar levels of exposure to adult words and conversational interactions as age-matched peers with normal-hearing (NH). Differences in adult input between children in this study and in a normative database were considered. Finally, factors were examined that may have contributed to individual differences in the input characteristics of families. Results indicated that the NH and HH groups were exposed to similar numbers of adult words and conversational turns. However, both the NH and HH groups were exposed to more adult words and engaged in more conversational turns than the NH children in the normative sample. Considering only the HH group, both quantity of adult words and conversational exchanges were correlated with children's auditory characteristics. Children's receptive language ability was correlated with conversational exchanges but not with adult word counts.

Using the Language Environment Analysis (LENA) system in preschool classrooms with children with autism spectrum disorders

This study describes the language environment of preschool programs serving children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) and examines relationships between child characteristics and an automated measure of adult and child language in the classroom. The Language Environment Analysis (LENA) system was used with 40 children with ASD to collect data on adult and child language. Standardized assessments were administered to obtain language, cognitive, and autism severity scores for participants. With a mean of over 5 hours of recording across two days several months apart, there was a mean of 3.6 child vocalizations per minute, 1.0 conversational turns (in which either the adult or child respond to the other within 5 seconds) per minute, and 29.2 adult words per minute. Two of the three LENA variables were significantly correlated with language age-equivalents. Cognitive age-equivalents were also significantly correlated with two LENA variables. Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule severity scores and LENA variables were not significantly correlated. Implications for using the LENA system with children with ASD in the school environment are discussed.

Effects of Aging and Education on False Memory

This study examined the effects of aging and education on participants' false memory for words that were not presented. Three age groups of participants with either a high or low education level were asked to study lists of semantically related words. Both age and education were found to affect veridical and false memory, as indicated in the recall and recognition of the studied word and nonstudied lures. A low education level had a negative effect on memory performance for both young and middle-aged adults. Older adults with a high level of education had a higher level of false memory than those with a lower education level. The results of this study are discussed in terms of the importance of education on false memory and mechanisms that create false memory of words in older adults.