Expatriate Adjustment Research Articles

Cross-Cultural Adjustment of Indonesian Expatriates in South Korea

This study examines the cross-cultural adjustment of Indonesian expatriates working in South Korea. Specifically, it focuses on Indonesian expatriates’ experiences and ways to adjust to the Korean workplace setting. Drawing upon in-depth interviews with nine Indonesian respondents, this study follows the adaptation model by Milton Bennet and moves beyond the antecedents of cross-cultural adjustment. It elaborates the expatriates’ practices in dealing with and negotiating cultural differences in the face of Korean working culture. The findings demonstrate that adjustment entails the acquisition of new norms and modes of behaviors as well as maintenance of old practices. Further, the sense of foreignness has been found constructive for cross-cultural adaptation.

Constructing the “self”? Constructing the “place”? A critical exploration of self-initiated expatriation in China

PurposeThis paper attempts to capture how self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) produce and reconstruct “self” and “place” through their own processes of expatriation and career development as mobility becomes a norm under present conditions of globalization. In so doing, the paper reexamines assumptions of previous expatriate adjustment scholarship by using phenomenon-driven problematization to critically reflect on underlying theoretical assumptions in the extant literature. Empirically, the paper is an exploratory attempt to understanding and offering fresh insights on the notion of expatriation itself under these present conditions.Design/methodology/approachBougon's (1983) Self-Q technique was used to develop interview protocols uncovering cognitive maps of SIEs' “enacted environments” as an abstraction of their experiences, while also mapping their “enacted selves”. Analyzing social action with a cognitive map approach reveals the meanings of specific social territories, i.e. the enactment of SIEs' mobility environments (place) and their subjectivities (self).FindingsThe authors’ findings suggest that SIEs seem to be constituting and reconstituting their subjectivities and their sense of “place” by displacing the notion of “home”. This notion transforms and recedes as SIEs go about their lives abroad, allowing for the emergence of plural subjectivities, never fully formed but formulated and reformulated in social encounters.Originality/valueThis study contributes to the expatriation literature by focusing on processes through which SIEs construct their world through their mobility and overseas experiences. Observing expatriation processes as continuous cycles of creating and recreating “self” and “place” may reflect better how contemporary business practitioners engage in transnational activities. Management scholars should attend to how these processes enact social territories for a better understanding of expatriation as a global phenomenon.

The Impact That Different Types of Organizational Cultures Have on the Adjustment of Self-Initiated Expatriates.

This paper investigates the adjustment of self-initiated expatriates, with a particular emphasis on organizational culture. One hundred and twenty-five self-initiated expatriates around the globe participated in the online survey. We examined the impact that organizational culture has on self-initiated expatriate work and non-work-related adjustment using multiple linear regression analysis. Four types of organizational culture (clan, adhocracy, market, and hierarchy) were explored. The results revealed that Clan culture has a positive effect on the work and non-work-related adjustment of self-initiated expatriates.

Understanding the Integration of Psychological and Socio-cultural Factors in Adjustment of Expatriates: An AUM Process Model

While the literature develops an adequate understanding of various socio-cultural and psychological factors that contribute to expatriates’ adjustment, limited work exists regarding interdependencies between these two dimensions of adjustment, particularly in the Asian context. Using the theoretical lens of the anxiety uncertainty management (AUM) model, this research examined the various socio-cultural and psychological factors that affect expatriates’ adjustment, and the integration of these factors during adjustment. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews of 55 Chinese top management expatriates working in Pakistan, and were analyzed using thematic analysis in NVivo. Based on the findings, an AUM model of expatriates’ adjustment is proposed, which illustrates how top management expatriates may go through a four-stage process of adjustment. The various socio-cultural and psychological factors, some identified from the literature and others through fieldwork, that play a role in expatriates’ adjustment at each stage, and the integration of these factors, is discussed.

Cultural distance and expatriates’ psychological adjustment: the moderating role of perceived social supports

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between cultural distance and psychological adjustment of expatriates in Nigeria and perceived social supports moderating the relationship.Design/methodology/approachThe study used a cross-sectional survey research design. Data were collected through 236 validly filled questionnaires by expatriates working in different industries in Nigeria. The research variables were measured using appropriate validated scales developed by different experts. Data collected were analyzed using frequency, percentages, mean and standard deviation. Correlation and regression analyses were conducted to establish the relationships among the variables.FindingsThe study found that the distance between expatriates’ home and Nigeria on each of the dimensions of cultural values: power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance cultural value, long-term orientation and indulgence negatively influence the psychological adjustment of the expatriates in Nigeria. The study demonstrated that the larger the distance between expatriates’ home and Nigeria's cultural values, the larger the difficulties in the psychological adjustment of expatriates in the country.Practical implicationsThis study provides useful insights and a better understanding to both present and future global human resource practitioners, multinational organizations, international institutions and local organizations operating in Nigeria with a global mindset on the cultural profiles of expatriates that are critical to adjust to working, social interactions and living environments in Nigeria.Originality/valueIt provides practical guidance to global human resource practitioners and employers on dimensions of cultural values distance between Nigeria and the home countries of expatriates that should be considered when deciding on, searching for, selecting, recruiting and relocating expatriates to work and live in Nigeria.

Host country national support to expatriates: a motivated information processing perspective

PurposeThe support of host country nationals (HCNs) is a key determinant of expatriate adjustment and performance. The purpose of this paper is to explore underlying motivations for their support to expatriates. Previous research has shown that HCNs with pro-social motivation are more likely to help expatriates. Drawing upon motivated information processing in groups (MIP-G) theory, the authors test whether epistemic motivation moderates the observed relationship between pro-social motivation and HCNs’ support toward expatriates.Design/methodology/approachThe authors ran two correlational studies (N = 267) in the USA (Study 1) and South Korea (Study 2). Across two studies, epistemic motivation and social motivation were measured using their multiple proxies validated in previous research. The authors also measured HCNs’ willingness to offer role information and social support to a hypothetical expatriate worker.FindingsResults lend support to our hypotheses that pro-social HCNs are more willing than pro-self HCNs to provide role information and social support to the expatriates, but this occurs only when they have high rather than low epistemic motivation.Originality/valueThe current paper contributes the literature on HCNs helping expatriates by qualifying the prior results that a pro-social motivation (e.g. agreeableness and collectivism) increases the willingness of HCNs to help expatriates. As hypothesized, this study found that that case is only true when HCNs have high, rather than low, epistemic motivation. Also, previous research on MIP-G theory has mainly focused on the performance of small groups (e.g. negotiation, creativity and decision-making). To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this research is the first attempt to test MIP-G theory in the context of HCNs helping expatriates.

The effects of perceived organisational support on expatriate adjustment, assignment completion and job satisfaction

This study examines the influence of perceived organisational support (POS) on expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment, assignment completion and job satisfaction in the sub-Saharan African context. While multinationals depend on expatriates to manage their foreign subsidiaries, successful expatriation is influenced by expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment to their host country’s environment. Survey responses from 229 expatriates were analysed using partial least squares path modelling. The results reveal that support from their organisations relates positively to expatriate adjustment, assignment completion and job satisfaction. The empirical results also demonstrate that expatriate adjustment partially mediates the relationship between POS and assignment completion and job satisfaction. Furthermore, findings suggest that assignment completion positively influences job satisfaction and partially mediates the association between POS and job satisfaction. The findings of this research have important theoretical and practical implications for multinational companies operating in sub-Saharan Africa.

Using social media and online collaboration technology in expatriate management: Benefits, challenges, and recommendations

AbstractThis article emphasizes the benefits of social media and online collaboration technology use in expatriate management, and the need to pay special attention to digitalization‐related issues in supporting expatriates and their family members before, during, and after international assignments. In particular, we argue that the traditional approaches to expatriate management need to be developed further to reflect current technological advancements, especially social media and online collaboration tools that are increasingly used by millions of individuals worldwide on a daily basis—a trend that has been reinforced by the outbreak of the COVID‐19 pandemic and related social contact and international mobility restrictions. For this purpose, we show the advantages of implementing the above digital technologies in a number of instances, ranging from the recruitment and selection of international assignees to the cultural adjustment of expatriates and their families in a foreign country. Given these benefits, and the need to account for potential challenges associated with the use of or a high reliance on digital technology during expatriate assignments to both culturally close and distant countries, we outline recommendations that will guide the management of these digital tools by assigning organizations.

Expatriate adjustment over time among foreign service employees: the role of cross-cultural experience

PurposeDrawing on social learning theory (SLT), this study aims to investigate how previous cross-cultural work experience influences individual adjustment in a foreign environment over time. For this purpose, the authors study foreign service employees who are characterized by permanent high mobility and frequent rotations.Design/methodology/approachTwo cross-sectional surveys conducted in 2011 (analytical sample N = 1,097) and 2019 (analytical sample N = 1,431) amongst German Foreign Service (GFS) employees are used to analyse employees' adjustment, measured by self-perceived quality of life (QOL) and its development over time based on four time points. Locational adjustment trajectories serve as robustness checks.FindingsYounger and therefore less experienced employees fit J-shaped patterns of adjustment, while more experienced employees show rather flat adjustment curves. Accordingly, work experience matters and “one curve fits all” approaches do not suffice to explain adjustment over time. Moreover, neither more nor less experienced employees experienced U-trajectories as proposed by previous literature on business expatriates.Research limitations/implicationsThe study findings are based on cross-sectional surveys, but longitudinal designs should be preferred in future research.Practical implicationsSending institutions may develop special support systems for inexperienced expatriates prior to departure to weaken the negative impacts of culture shock.Originality/valueExisting literature only sparsely analysed adjustment and QOL for foreign service employees/diplomats so far. To the authors’ knowledge, no study analysed trajectories of adjustment over time for this population. This study profits from the analysis across two surveys. Both samples benefit from a high diversity, among others, regarding gender, age, education and host countries.

Demographic Profiles for Cross-Cultural Adjustment of Expatriates in Nigeria

Abstract This paper offers insight into the demographic profiles of expatriates for successful cross-cultural adjustments in the context of Nigeria. It considers the following demographics: age, gender, marital status, international work experience, and time spent in the host country. The study adopted cross-sectional survey research by utilizing a questionnaire to collect data from one hundred and fifty-two (152) expatriate residents in Nigeria, who relocated from 22 different countries and who have worked and lived in Nigeria for over six months. The paper discovered that marital status, international work experience, and length of stay in Nigeria rather than age and gender are the demographic profiles influencing and required for the successful cross-cultural adjustment of expatriates in the Nigerian context. It concludes that the more organizations recruit, select, and deploy expatriates whose demographic profiles reflect the higher length of stay/time in Nigeria, higher level of international work experience, and single/unmarried, the higher the successful cross-cultural adjustment of such expatriates in the Nigerian context.

Influence of Self-Esteem, Perceived Social Support and Psychological Morbidity among Expatriates During COVID-19 Pandemic

Self-esteem and perceived social support play an important role in psychological morbidity of an individual. Along with preexisting conditions, the unfortunate spread of COVID 19 pandemic has caused panic and worry. So far, research on expatriate academics has remained negligible. Support provided through social contacts in the host environment has long been recognized as critical for expatriate adjustment, the validity of which is examined. Internet technologies are changing the way individuals form and interact with social contacts and access social support. These technologies have the potential to offer expatriates new sources and means for accessing social support. Age and education level attained by the expatriates are explored as to how significantly they could act as moderators in the relationship between expatriates and society. Through this research we aim to understand the relationship between self-esteem, perceived social support and psychological morbidity among expatriates from gulf countries during covid 19 pandemic. We also use this research study to understand the relationship between psychological morbidity and self-esteem among expatriates from gulf countries during covid-19 pandemic. For this a correlational study is done using convenience sampling. The study was conducted among 60 adults of age group 35 to 55. Convenient sampling method was used to select the participants into the study. Participants were recruited to study based on the inclusion and exclusion of the criteria. The sample for the study included 60 adults and three questionnaires regarding self-esteem, perceived social support and psychological morbidity were administered to them. Appropriate statistical tools are used for the analysis of the study.

Am I ‘In or Out’? A social identity approach to studying expatriates’ social networks and adjustment in a host country context

Utilizing the Social Identity Theory, this study compares the adjustment process of self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) and organizational assigned expatriates (OEs). It explores the effectiveness of organizational training programs for expatriates and the role of host country nationals (HCNs) in the expatriate adjustment process. It further investigates how group membership at work influences the work-related outcomes related to expatriates’ personal, social and relational social identity dimensions. By interviewing key informants from three multinational enterprises (MNEs) in China, this study finds that traditional cross-cultural training practices are redundant as expatriates on various staffing patterns have a different understanding of local cultural and social values. We contribute by providing evidence of how the motivation for undertaking an assignment varies between SIEs (who view this role as a stepping-stone to find a better position in another organization) and OEs (who view this transfer as a key opportunity for promotion, within their current organization). Our findings also suggest that despite SIEs belief that they were in-group members of networks, HCNs do not distinguish between OEs and SIEs, and treated both groups as members of the out-group. We present the theoretical and practical implications of this study and provide future research directions in the paper.

Work-From-Home Adjustment in the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of Psychological Climate for Face Time

The COVID-19 pandemic has led many organizations to mandate large-scale full-time work-from-home (WFH), shattering the dichotomy between remote workers and those who are physically in the office. Emerging findings on full-time WFH have not yet brought clarity on the causes and mechanisms of employees’ well-being and productivity in this context that contrasts with prior-pandemic work. Drawing on the transactional theory of stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), we argue that employees who perceive their organization’s psychological climate as emphasizing face time may appraise full-time WFH as a threat and, as a result, perceive higher availability expectations on the part of their organization. We further argue that this relationship will be stronger in the US than in Europe, where emploment protection is higher. In turn, perceived expectations of extended availability predict WFH adjustment, a multi-dimensional affective, behavioral, and cognitive construct we borrow from expatriate adjustment’s literature to guide future research on WFH. In a two-wave study on an organizational sample of 532 employees working in the US and in Europe, we find that a psychological climate for face time hampers employees’ adjustment to WFH through increased perceptions of availability expectations, and that this process is exacerbated in the US.

The effects of cultural intelligence and Vietnamese proficiency on expatriate adjustment in Vietnam

The expatriate adjustment has been receiving more and more academic attention due to its increasing importance in globalization. There are many antecedents and outcomes of cross-cultural adjustment of expatriates. This research explores the relationships among Vietnamese proficiency, four dimensions of cultural intelligence, and expatriate adjustment. The study was conducted with data from 379 expatriates living/lived in Vietnam. The results reveal that Vietnamese proficiency and metacognitive cultural intelligence affect general adjustment indirectly through work and interaction adjustment. Meanwhile, cognitive cultural intelligence only a general adjustment but not the other two facets. The researcher also gives practical implications for corporations, international human resource management practitioners, and individual expatriates.

Mix and match: bicultural expatriates in multicultural Malaysia

PurposeThis paper aims to investigate the expatriate adjustment experiences of “biculturals”, defined here as individuals who have internalised at least two cultural profiles, in a host-country setting that is itself also culturally diverse.Design/methodology/approachA qualitative approach was adopted, involving semi-structured interviews with a small number of bicultural expatriates working in Malaysia.FindingsThe findings here echo previous studies in demonstrating bicultural expatriates’ ability (and tendency) to switch cultural frames as part of their adjustment. Despite this, however, their professional and social networks appear to still be shaped by cultural factors, with expatriates drawn towards networks whose members mainly comprise certain ethnic groups whose values and norms are perceived as being more closely aligned with those of the expatriate.Originality/valueThough the literature on bicultural expatriates continues to grow, little emphasis has been given to a host-country setting that is itself culturally diverse. The findings here suggest that in such a setting, professional and social networks serve as an aid in the adjustment. Importantly, however, these networks, rather than being culturally impartial, as it were, may primarily comprise certain ethnic groups who are considered culturally “closer” to the expatriate in question.

Expatriate Adjustment and Engagement with Host Country Gastronomy: Investigating The Role of Identity Projects

Research on expatriate consumer behavior suggests that expatriates can be attracted to host country gastronomy, but sometimes they also suppress themselves from engaging with it. To shed light on these inconsistencies, this study draws on cross-cultural adjustment literature and social identity theory to explore under what circumstances expatriates increase their tendency to visit restaurants offering host country cuisine. To test the proposed model, a survey was conducted among 289 expatriates living in the six countries of the Greater Middle East. The data were analyzed by means of confirmatory factor analysis and hierarchical regression. The findings show that general adjustment is a positive predictor of more frequent visits to local restaurants. However, the findings also indicate that this relationship is conditioned by an expatriate’s identity projects which are associated with cultural integration, cosmopolitanism, and international experience. Overall, novel extensions to the literature that investigates an expatriate’s engagement with a host country’s food and gastronomy is provided.

“Stepping out of the ordinary”: exploring cross-cultural challenges of expatriates in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Purpose In the study of expatriation and expatriate adaptation, there are limited studies that focus on issues faced by expatriates working in foreign countries with very distinct cultures. This study aims to explore this idea through the experiences of western expatriates working in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Two research questions were posed to examine the cross-cultural issues and challenges faced by expatriates in the KSA, as well as the role of cross-cultural training in expatriate adjustment. Design/methodology/approach The study was guided by an interpretivism paradigm through a qualitative method by using a semi-structured in-depth interview approach. Interviews were conducted among 12 expatriates from the USA and UK who are currently working in KSA. Findings A coding technique and theoretical thematic analysis was conducted to analyze the data. The results of this study highlighted three key themes that had a considerable influence on expatriates’ adjustment, in particular: culture shock, lack of pre-departure training and the demand for an extensive cross-cultural training. Research limitations/implications It is acknowledged that the existence of sub-cultures within the KSA would expose the respondents to varying cultural values within the community. Thus, future studies within a similar context should consider the influence of intra-cultural variations. Originality/value The findings of the study emphasized on the importance understanding the cultural gap between home and host country and the individual cultural awareness of the expatriate. It calls attention to the need for a tailored and extensive pre-departure, cross-cultural training and a collaborative effort between employees’ and managers to improve expatriates’ motivation and retention.

Adaptive Personality, Communication Competence and Psychological Health

Expatriate adjustment has gained wide attention because of its relevance to expatriates’ successful performance. This study examined the adaptation experience of Korean expatriates in India. Y.Y. Kim’s Integrative Theory of Cross-Cultural Adaptation offers a multidimensional system to explain the link between adaptive personality, communication and psychological health. Our analysis uses a self-reported questionnaire collected from 78 Korean expatriates. Results show positive correlation between theoretical constructs, suggesting expatriates’ personality, ability to communicate and ability to participate in the host country's social processes facilitate successful cross-cultural adjustment overseas.

How relationship quality, autonomous work motivation and socialization experience influence the adjustment of self-initiated expatriates in China

PurposeThe continued expansion of organizations outside China's planned economy due to the Belt-and-Road Initiative (BRI) is expected to increase recruitment of self-initiated expatriates (SIEs). Drawing on social capital, motivation and socialization theories, this study examines the experiences of SIEs in China, which is considered one of the most difficult locations for foreigners to work. While previous research has focused on the impact of individual characteristics on adjustment, this study explores the interplay among relationship quality (trust and shared vision), autonomous work motivation, socialization experience and adjustment.Design/methodology/approachBased on the developed theoretical framework, hypotheses are proposed and tested using data collected by surveying 274 SIEs in China.FindingsRelationship quality with host country nationals (HCNs) was positively associated with adjustment, and autonomous work motivation fully mediated this relationship. Socialization experience moderated the association between relationship quality and autonomous work motivation. Specifically, SIEs' socialization experience strengthened the associations of trust and shared vision with autonomous work motivation. However, socialization experiences failed to moderate the mediated effects of trust and shared vision on adjustment via autonomous work motivation.Originality/valueThis study answers repeated calls for more research on SIEs' adjustment and SIEs working in non-Western countries, especially China. The findings underscore the importance of studying SIE-HCN work relationships and the theoretical value of autonomous work motivation as an underlying mechanism by which the quality of an SIE's relationship with an HCN colleague influences adjustment.

A Study on Challenges and adjustment of expatriates in Cross cultural context

A Study on Challenges and adjustment of expatriates in Cross cultural context