Adjacent Apartments Research Articles

Dynamic analysis of the heat theft issue for residential buildings

European Union is facing a dramatic energy crisis, due to the huge increase of the natural gas cost, due to the Russian-Ukrainian war. In this framework, the fair allocation of natural gas costs, used for space heating purposes in residential centralized heating systems, is becoming a crucial issue. These systems suffer for the heat theft phenomenon, where an unheated apartment may benefit of the heat transfer from the surrounding heated apartments. Unfortunately, there is no consensus regarding a suitable heat accounting method, implemented in order to limit heat thefts. In this work, two novel billing strategies are proposed. In the first one, the heating cost includes both a variable fee and a constant fee. The second one also considers a penalty for the unheated apartments. A case study is analyzed. It consists of a multifamily building including 4 floors and located in Naples. This building is equipped with a centralized heating system, coupled with radiators, variable speed pumps, thermostatic valves, and heat metering devices. A suitable dynamic simulation model is developed in TRNSYS 18 environment to analyze the energy and economic performance of the system. The comfort parameters of unheated users are also analyzed and discussed. The proposed billing strategies are able to smooth the heating bill increase for the heated apartments adjacent to the unheated user. The novel billing strategy proposed by this research can significantly mitigate the heat theft issue. In particular, results show that the penalty should be almost 2.5 times the constant fee for preventing the unheated user issue. Simulations also show that installing a suitable thermal insulation for the walls among adjacent apartments may dramatically limit the heat thefts. However, insulating such walls may result often unfeasible for the owners of the apartments, due to reduction of the floor area and to the major refurbishment required.

Field tests to examine energy saving effects of occupants’ thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs) regulating behavior in district heating systems

Residential thermostat control is considered to be an effective way to allow individual regulation, and to encourage energy saving behavior. However, energy savings resulting from occupants’ regulating behavior still needs to be quantified. We investigated several district heating systems that had thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs) installed, in Beijing and Tianjin, and evaluated the energy saving ratio, and the influence of heat transfer from adjacent apartments for four typical regulation scenarios. To separate out the effects of the occupants’ regulation, a reference analysis method is proposed for comparison. Results indicate that when an individual occupant adjusted the TRVs according to a daily schedule for intermittent heating, the energy saving ratio was only about 6%. When the TRVs of an apartment are kept closed for a long unoccupied period (more than 4 days), the daily energy saving ratio was about 20%, and the total quantity of heat transferred from adjacent apartments was about 80% of the heat consumption of the reference apartment. In addition, when the TRVs were kept at a set-value (such as 3), energy saving ratios of about 12% were obtained. The results of this study provide further data for developing better management policies for heating terminal customization.

ANALYSIS OF THE COLLISION EFFECT FOR ADJACENT STRUCTURES IN THE TIME-FREQUENCY DOMAIN

Many reinforced concrete structures are built side by side in our cities. There are very few applications of earthquake joints in adjacent apartment buildings, most of them were constructed completely adjacent. Adjoining buildings or any property should be protected from damage or collapse during construction, restoration and demolition work. In case of the static condition, protection must be supplied for foundations, walls and roofs. We have already observed many building collapses in Turkey with a great number of life lost. For the constructed buildings, there is a need to understand the structural system of an existing building to manage risk. In case of earthquakes like dynamic loading, earthquake joints are essential. The Turkish Building Earthquake Code (TBEC) 2018 requires calculations of vertical joints for some types of structures. Earthquake joints should be left in the gap calculated for structures of some height. It is thought that this gap will prevent the structures from colliding. However, it has been the subject of research how the performance of the building will change when it is produced adjacent or when floor offsets cause collisions at earthquake joints. In this study, structures of different heights were analyzed in the time domain for specific earthquake motions. Collision situations of more than two buildings are discussed by making a street model. Structural performances of discrete and adjacent structures obtained from nonlinear analysis were compared. The motion parameters obtained from the structures were analyzed in the time-frequency domain by wavelet and Hilbert transforms. To determine the effects of earthquake joints, condition assessment and damage detection studies were carried out and the sufficiency of seismic joints was discussed.

Funkcja balkonu jako okoliczność istotna dla ustalania jego statusu własnościowego – glosa do wyroku Sądu Najwyższego (3) z dnia 6 marca 2015 r., sygn. III CSK 195/14

In the voted judgment, the opinion worthy of approval was adopted, according to which the fact that the balcony does not meet the individual needs of the owner of the apartment to which it adjoins, but “constitutes communication”, its function is to connect the staircase with the entrance to the apartment, is an important factor in determining whether the balcony it is a part of the shared property or an adjacent apartment.

Revisiting heat energy consumption modeling: Household production theory applied to field experimental data

This paper offers new insights on utility-driven heat energy consumption derived from using an interdisciplinary modeling framework that is based on Becker's household production theory. The research question addressed is whether economic aspects affect short-term, less conscious behavior in the same way as long-term, more conscious behavior. From the investigation, new insights on the usefulness of price-based energy policy measures targeting heat energy consumption are gained. The household production model proposed for analyzing residential heat energy demand integrates economic, engineering and behavioral elements. Comparative statics enables an interdisciplinary integration of price- and income functions to cover economic influences on heat energy (service) consumption, the production function to cover technical influences, and the utility-based choice architecture to cover utility maximization influences. Based on a functional representation of the theories, a panel data model of heat energy consumption is estimated. The empirical analysis is based on data from 60 adjacent apartments in South-West Germany. We find empirical evidence that the price elasticity of demand is only statistically significant when using yearly aggregated data. This result provides evidence that occupants apparently do not act much based upon energy price levels when following their daily home heating routine. In less frequent considerations, as e.g. according to their yearly billing cycles, occupants adjust their heat energy consumption in response to the fuel price changes noticed on the energy bill. Furthermore, in relation to the other influences on heat energy consumption, we find that the price impact is less pronounced than the impact of comfort conditions. Therefore, a CO2 price on heat energy might set the right incentives to invest in more energy-efficient heating technology, but hardly alter comfort-taking or rebound effects.

Study on the effect of awakening daylight in dormitories on morning alertness, mood, fatigue and sleep quality of college students

Awakening lighting has an important influence on circadian rhythm, alertness, mood and other physiological and psychological indexes. In a real situation with no electric awakening light, psychological suggestion or interference, the influencing mechanism of awakening daylight on human physiology and psychology is explored from the awakening data of dynamic daylight. This data can further guide the application of electric awakening lighting. The effects of daylight exposure at eye level on sleep quality, morning alertness, mood and fatigue of college students in dormitories in Beijing were studied. The subjects were 8 male and 8 female students from 4 dormitories in two adjacent apartments, and field experiments were conducted for 36 days in winter and 30 days in summer. The real-time illuminance of daylight before awakening was recorded by a wireless illuminance sensor, and the amount of light exposure and the maximum illuminance before awakening were calculated. The evaluation data of physiological and psychological indexes such as sleep quality, morning alertness, mood and fatigue were obtained by using sleep monitoring equipment—Jawbone UP3, PSQI, KSS, positive and negative semantic scales. The results showed that the lighting exposure accumulation before awakening in summer were significantly correlated with morning alertness, mood and deep sleep duration and there was a significant correlation between the Emax and morning alertness in summer. In addition, there were significant differences in deep sleep duration and morning alertness between different groups of lighting exposure accumulation in summer. There was no significant correlation between the lighting exposure accumulation or max value of illuminance and the physiological and psychological indexes in winter.

Effects of Neighboring Units on the Estimation of Particle Penetration Factor in a Modeled Indoor Environment

Ingress of air from neighboring apartments is an important source of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in residential multi-story buildings. It affects the measurement and estimation of particle deposition rate and penetration factor. A blower-door method to measure the particle deposition rate and penetration factor has previously been found to be more precise than the traditional decay-rebound method as it reduces variability of PM2.5 ingress from outside. CONTAM is a multi-zone indoor air quality and ventilation analysis computer program to aid the prediction of indoor air quality. It was used in this study to model the indoor PM2.5 concentrations in an apartment under varying PM2.5 emission from neighboring apartments and window opening and closing regimes. The variation of indoor PM2.5 concentration was also modeled for different days to account for typical outdoor variations. The calibrated CONTAM model aimed to simulate environments found during measurement of particle penetration factor, thus identifying the source of error in the estimates. Results show that during simulated measurement of particle penetration factors using the blower-door method for three-hour periods under a constant 4 Pa pressure difference, the indoor PM2.5 concentration increases significantly due to PM2.5 generated from adjacent apartments, having the potential to cause an error of more than 20% in the estimated value of particle penetration factor. The error tends to be lower if the measuring time is extended. Simulated measurement of the decay-rebound method showed that more PM2.5 can penetrate inside if the PM2.5 was generated from apartments below under naturally variable weather conditions. A multiple blower-door fan can be used to reduce the effects of neighboring emission and increase the precision of the penetration estimates.

Can We Still Choose Architectural History?

I feel a little like I’m in the eye of a storm. My recently cobbled-together home office—in the room above our garage, warmed by afternoon winter light slanting past the adjacent apartment block an...

Heat transfer between heated, partially heated and non-heated residential units in buildings

Space heating cost allocation according to actual consumption can be one possible motivating factor for saving energy in residential and other buildings. As a consequence of the exclusion of a certain number of users in collective housing units from the central heating supply system in the city of Skopje, the problem of heating cost allocation and collection of the fixed part of the heat energy payment has arosen. The subject of the analysis in this study was the heat transfer in buildings, with the main focus on the issue of heat transfer rate between residential units with different internal temperatures, such as from heated to unheated or partly heated apartments in collective building objects. The purpose of the analysis was to assess the mutual energy interaction between the completely or partially excluded apartments from the central heating system and the adjacent apartments connected to the central heating system. This is done by simulating the thermal characteristics of typical buildings that are representatives of new (insulated) and old (un-insulated) buildings. For the simulation purposes, the external average daily and monthly temperatures were obtained based on the perennial outdoor temperatures measured in Skopje and additional series of input data that are characteristic for the city were used. For the value of the internal temperature in the dwellings the value for the standard internal design temperatures are predefined. As results of the simulation, values were obtained for the annual heat gains (in kWh/year) and the specific heat gains (in kWh/m2year) of the excluded apartments from the system of central heating through the enclosures (internal walls, ceiling and floor) of the adjacent apartments that are connected to the system for central heating and vertical hot water pipelines for an isolated and nonisolated buildings. In order to obtain a clearer picture, in the study are considered different configurations and positions of apartments in the building. As an indicator for each considered apartment, the ratio of the received thermal energy of the disconnected apartment to the required energy for its heating is calculated. Based on the obtained results, appropriate conclusions were drawn regarding the reduction of the necessary energy for heating of the excluded apartments, as a consequence of the thermal gains through the walls of the neighboring apartments that are connected to the heating system.

Revisiting Heat Energy Consumption Modeling: Household Production Theory Applied to Field Experimental Data

This paper offers new insights on utility-driven heat energy consumption. The research question addressed is whether economic aspects affect short-term, less conscious behavior in the same way as long-term, more conscious behavior. The model proposed is based on Becker’s household production theory and integrates economic, engineering and behavioral elements. Comparative statics enables an interdisciplinary integration of price- and income functions to cover economic influences, the production function to cover technical influences, and the utility-based choice architecture. Based on a functional representation of the theories, a panel data model of heat energy consumption is estimated. The empirical analysis is based on data from 60 adjacent apartments in South-West Germany. We find empirical evidence that the price elasticity of demand is only statistically significant when using yearly aggregated data. This result provides evidence that occupants apparently do not act upon energy price signals when following their daily home heating routine. In less frequent considerations, as e.g. according to their yearly billing cycles, occupants adjust their heat energy consumption with respect to the fuel price influence. Furthermore, in relation to the other influences on heat energy consumption, we find that the price impact is less pronounced than the impact of comfort conditions.

Influence of an unheated apartment on the heating consumption of residential building considering current regulations—Case of Serbia

District heating system brings with it the problem of achieving a fair billing service for heating of apartment buildings in the case of uneven temperature in them. The problem is most pronounced when the individual apartments are completely excluded from the heating system of the building. The model of an existing building with 24 apartments was simulated in the software EnergyPlus, for different characteristics of the thermal envelope and different conditions of use, when the apartment with the lowest energy consumption is excluded from the heating system. It was simulated the exclusion of this apartment in which people are present and the lights and electrical appliances are turned on and in which there is no presence of people and electricity consumption (the apartment is empty). As a measure of energy flow between unheated and adjacent apartments, the parameter “stolen” energy is defined. The results of the conducted simulations show that the stolen energy is reduced by the exterior and interior insulation of the building. In this paper, data on energy flow when there is interior insulation in apartments, in particular according to the current regulations in Serbia, are especially analyzed. The results show that, depending on the case and scenario, the stolen energy ranges from 27.23 to 7.97kWh/m2. The insulation of interior walls of the building can significantly mitigate the problem of energy flow due to temperature differences between apartments.

Predicting horizontal impact sound transmission for complex floor systems: Using EN 12354-2:2000, finite element method, statistical energy analysis and analytical techniques

Modifications to the New Zealand Building Code are currently being considered, which may create a requirement to assess impact noise horizontally not just vertically. The test would be similar to vertical tests as described in ISO 140-7:1998, but sound pressure levels are proposed to be measured instead in the closest living space in an adjacent apartment which shares a common floor system. This work seeks to identify and validate different mathematical and computational methods for predicting the results of horizontal impact tests. Three methodologies were tested: finite element method software, statistical energy analysis and an analytical solution derived from the governing partial differential equations. These methods were applied to two different floor systems: a concrete double tee floor and a concrete floor supported by concrete beams and columns. Limitations were found for all of the methods, and caution is advised when using these to design to horizontal impact noise criteria.

Space heating demand response potential of retrofitted residential apartment blocks

In future and smarter energy systems, time varying energy prices enable indirect demand response (DR) to assist the electricity supply system to meet demand. This simulation-based study investigates how economic model predictive control (E-MPC) schemes for space heating operation can utilize the thermal mass in an existing multi-story apartment block and eight retrofit scenarios to provide DR. The performance of the E-MPC scheme was evaluated in terms of its ability to enable end-user cost savings, reduce CO2 emissions and to perform load shift of the heating demand compared to a conventional PI controller. Two E-MPC approaches were considered: centralized E-MPC where inter-zonal effects were considered and decentralized E-MPC that neglected heat transfer between adjacent apartments. The E-MPC schemes led to increasing cost savings (up to approx. 6%) and reduced CO2 emissions (up to approx. 3%) as a function of increasing energy efficiency of the retrofit scenarios. The absolute amount of shifted power from peak load periods was rather consistent (approx. 2 kWh/m2 heated net area) across all retrofit scenarios compared to the existing building. The centralized E-MPC scheme led to marginally better results than the decentralized E-MPC. The added complexity involved in establishing a centralized E-MPC compared to a decentralized E-MPC may therefore not be worth the effort.

Allocation of heating costs with consideration to energy transfer from adjacent apartments

This article describes the problems associated with the allocation of heating costs in multi-family buildings. According to the article, the main source of such problems is the transfer of energy between adjacent apartments as well as energy gains from pipes. Based on the source material, examples of solutions enabling the assessment of energy transfer between adjacent apartments were described.The aim of the article is to present a different method of correcting errors in the allocation of heating costs in multi-family buildings than the approach described in the introduction. The method described herein is based on the determination of the average internal temperature with the use of special heat cost allocators. Having established the so-called average apartment temperatures during a heating season, it is possible to analytically determine the energy required for heating as well as to correct the participation of individual apartments in the total energy consumption of a building.

Localization of plumbing noise in a multistory building using an acoustic camera

Noise generated by plumbing pipes inside a multi-family dwelling can be a source of great annoyance on its residents. Corrective action of such noise begins with identification of the noise source followed by appropriate noise reduction measures. Source identification becomes more challenging when documentation on the plumbing design is missing or when the noise level is so low that it cannot be localized using practical methods. This paper describes a similar problem where low level noise generated by sanitary pipes is heard inside an apartment building. As a localization tool, an acoustic camera utilizing beam-forming technology is used to identify the noise location inside walls between two adjacent apartment units. Findings are visually presented and discussed.

Modeling Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) Infiltration in Low-Income Multifamily Housing before and after Building Energy Retrofits.

Secondhand exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in multifamily housing remains a health concern despite strong recommendations to implement non-smoking policies. Multiple studies have documented exposure to ETS in non-smoking units located in buildings with smoking units. However, characterizing the magnitude of ETS infiltration or measuring the impact of building interventions or resident behavior on ETS is challenging due to the complexities of multifamily buildings, which include variable resident behaviors and complex airflows between numerous shared compartments (e.g., adjacent apartments, common hallways, elevators, heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, stack effect). In this study, building simulation models were used to characterize changes in ETS infiltration in a low income, multifamily apartment building in Boston which underwent extensive building renovations targeting energy savings. Results suggest that exterior wall air sealing can lead to increases in ETS infiltration across apartments, while compartmentalization can reduce infiltration. The magnitude and direction of ETS infiltration depends on apartment characteristics, including construction (i.e., level and number of exterior walls), resident behavior (e.g., window opening, operation of localized exhaust fans), and seasonality. Although overall ETS concentrations and infiltration were reduced post energy-related building retrofits, these trends were not generalizable to all building units. Whole building smoke-free policies are the best approach to eliminate exposure to ETS in multifamily housing.

Effect of Occupant Behavior and Control Systems on the Reduction of Energy Needs of Residential Buildings

Adoption of energy metering systems in apartments with centralized heating plant will lead to greater awareness of the users on energy consumptions. Moreover control systems allow to manage internal temperature according to kind of occupation of the apartment.Starting from the energy consumption of a case study, an apartment block in Bologna, this paper shows the results, based on dynamic simulation, of reduction of energy needs resulting from retrofitting on the building envelope and the effects of thermoregulation systems. Different setting of the internal temperature in adjacent apartments can lead to a variation of energy consumption up to 30%.

Don Juan Tenorio in the Campo de Cebada: restaging urban space after 15-M

The spectacle of the encampments that occupied public plazas throughout Spain during the 15-M protests of 2011 asserted what urban theorist Henri Lefebvre (1968) and others have called the “right to the city.” In a similar vein, the free open-air performances on All Saints' Day in 2011 and 2012 of José Zorrilla's Don Juan Tenorio by the theater collective AlmaViva Teatro in the self-managed neighborhood space called the Campo de Cebada have also been an effort to reclaim urban space. These performances called Don Juan Tenorio en La Cebada are notable not only for their use of a repurposed vacant lot left abandoned in the wake of the financial crisis but also for their dynamic staging that required the public to move throughout the large vacant lot for each of the play's seven acts. As the public traversed the reappropriated space of the Campo de Cebada, the performance was framed by the urban backdrop created by the bright lights of the Teatro Latina and the adjacent residential apartment buildings. This movement of the public not only foregrounded the trope of mobility evoked by the shifting dramatic spaces within Zorrilla's work but also the mobile and changing character of urban space produced by the perpetual investment and divestment of speculative capital. Just as Don Juan Tenorio journeys from the physical world to the spiritual one and moves from a secular space of individualism to the communal space of heaven, these performances have created an urban experience that promotes community and connection that stands in stark contrast to the cold, individualistic logic of mobile capital and real estate speculation that characterized the economic bubble that preceded the current crisis.

Reallocation of heating costs due to heat transfer between adjacent apartments

Individual metering and charging have earlier been found to increase the tenant's awareness of costs and have in most cases resulted in a saving behavior and energy conservation. In the new EU-directive 2012/27/EU there is a decree of heat cost allocation in multi-apartment buildings and two techniques are mentioned to achieve this. The first technique mentioned is to mount an energy meter on the radiator circuit and one can measure the amount of heat (thermal energy) delivered to an apartment. The second technique is heat cost allocators mounted at each radiator. Both techniques result in that the delivered amount of heat to an apartment is measured, and this can be done fairly accurate. However, earlier studies have shown on large amount of heat leaking between adjacent apartments making heat cost allocation based on the measurement incorrect. The purpose of this study is to develop a cost-efficient method for estimating the size of heat transfer between adjacent apartments in multi-apartment buildings. The objective is to use these estimations for reallocation of heating costs due to heat transfers when measuring the delivered amount of heating energy to an apartment. The methodology used for the purpose is an earlier presented model as a base which has been further developed. The method is tested on an existing multi-apartment building with 16 apartments. An attempt to verify the method has also been done with computer based simulations. The study demonstrates a possibility to make corrections for heat transfer between adjacent apartments in a fairly cost-efficient manner. However, the accuracy of the method has to be improved by more studies in other multi-apartment buildings.

Numerical simulation of inter-floor airflow and impact on pollutant transport in high-rise buildings due to buoyancy-driven natural ventilation

The purpose of this study is to numerically investigate vertical flow interaction and air pollutant transport in multiple adjoined ventilated enclosures. The flow is driven by buoyancy effect due to temperature/ concentration difference between the heat/pollutant sources and the ambient fluid. Attention was given to analyse the effect of the main factors – the strength of pollutant source, the presence of heat source and the strategies of window openings – on the pollutant transport among different enclosures. The study has found that air pollutant can spread from lower floors to upper floors due to the inter-floor airflow through open windows caused by the buoyancy force. The stronger the pollutant source, the higher the pollutant concentration would be in the adjacent apartments on upper floors. The results also show that the pollutant transport could be affected by the heat source, which would aid the transport of pollutants to upper floors when the heat source is located at the enclosure on the same floor as the pollutant source. The enclosure with two openings on single side would be more susceptible to the pollutants from the lower floor than an enclosure with one opening. The study concluded that the airflow interaction between different floors due to buoyancy has an important effect on the vertical transport of air pollutants in buildings.