Addition Of Cellulose Nanofibers Research Articles

Investigation of cellulose nanofiber enhanced viscoelastic fracturing fluid system: Increasing viscoelasticity and reducing filtration

Viscoelastic fracturing fluid (VFF) is considered to have great potential as fracturing agent with no residues and low damage to formation. However, traditional VFF composed of surfactant and salt is difficult to form filter cake due to its low molecular weight components, resulting in high filtration during fracturing operation. In order to solve this problem, cellulose nanofiber (CNF) enhanced viscoelastic fracturing fluid (CNEVFF) formed by sodium oleate (NaOA)/potassium chloride (KCl) and CNF was proposed and studied. The rheological properties of CNEVFF were investigated by rheometer. With the addition of CNF, the zero-shear viscosity of CNEVFF is higher than that of VFF. Moreover, the microstructures of core surface filtrated by different systems were detected by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) measurement, proving the formation of filter cake. The dynamic filtration damage (DFD) measurement was employed to investigate the damage effect of different fracturing fluids on the cores with different permeabilities. In addition, more details of different flooding stages during DFD experiment were measured by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) technology, exhibiting the damaging process of CNEVFF to the core dynamically. The removal of filter cake and an appropriate mechanism describing the formation and destruction of novel network formed by VFF and CNF was discussed.

Properties of cellulose nanofiber/bengkoang starch bionanocomposites: Effect of fiber loading

This paper reports on the effect of addition of cellulose nanofibers (CNF) from pineapple leaf on the properties of bengkoang starch bionanocomposite film prepared with ultrasonication. Starch, glycerol, and distilled water were mixed with 0.5, 0.1, 1.5 or 2 wt% of CNF. A gel made from this mixture was sonicated using an ultrasonic probe (600 W) for 5 min then cast in a petri dish. The addition of CNF resulted in a significant improvement (p ≤ 0.05) on the properties of the bionanocomposite. 2 wt% CNF loading led to a maximum tensile strength of 9.8 ± 0.8 MPa; 160% higher than film without fibers. The highest CNF loading resulted in the lowest moisture absorption and water vapor permeability, and highest thermal resistance of the bionanocomposite films tested. These improved characteristics were due to the ultrasonication dispersing the CNF homogeneously throughout the starch matrix and suggest that this CNF enhanced bionanocomposite could have commercial potential where there is a demand for products based on food-safe renewable raw materials.

Effects of cellulose nanofibrils on dialdehyde carboxymethyl cellulose based dual responsive self-healing hydrogel

A self-healing hydrogel containing acylhydrazone bond and disulfide bond with pH and redox dual responses was prepared by crosslinking dialdehyde carboxymethyl cellulose (DCMC) with 3,3′-dithiobis(propionohydrazide) (DTP). The pH, gelator concentration and oxidation degree of DCMC affected the formation of DCMC-based self-healing hydrogels seriously. Interestingly, addition of cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) improved the mechanical property of the DCMC-based self-healing hydrogel and its efficiency. When 1.0 wt% CNFs was added in hydrogel preparation, the compressive strength (1.05 MPa) of the composite hydrogel increased by 275% and its strain rose to 74.6%. The healing rate of hydrogel containing 1.0 wt% CNFs was 82.7% at 0.5 h and 89.9% at 1 h, which was much faster than that of original hydrogel (51.6% at 0.5 h and 58.5% in 1 h). DCMC-based dual responsive self-healing hydrogel showed good biocompatibility confirmed by cytotoxicity test, which is potential to implement in medial field.

Surface modification of cellulose nanofiber using acid anhydride for poly(lactic acid) reinforcement

This research examined the performance of poly(lactic acid) (PLA) by the addition of cellulose nanofiber (CNF) as a filler. CNF produced by green fibrillation method without any chemical pre-treatment had advantages in low cost and time saving, which can produce bulky CNF in a short period compared with traditional methods such as acid dialysis and 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO) oxidation. It was demonstrated that modification on the hydroxyl group of cellulose into acetyl group changed the compatibility of CNF with PLA. Acetylated cellulose nanofiber (ACNF) and PLA formed smooth surface composite films with good transparency and mechanical properties. Moreover, the tensile strength of neat PLA film was improved by 25% when 1 wt% of ACNF was used as the filler. Furthermore, without lowering the thermal stability of PLA, composite films of PLA/ACNF exhibited higher hydrophobicity as high as 85.9° compared with that of neat PLA film with 70.2° contact angle.

Cellulose-Nanofiber-Mediated Sorption-Benefitting Holed Silicalite-1 Crystals.

Silicalite-1-type zeolites with unique intracrystal holes or cracks were successfully prepared using a cellulose nanofiber (CNF) as an additional mediating material, and their vapor phase adsorption properties toward methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) and n-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) were examined. It was found that the mixing protocol of CNF and structure-directing agents (SDAs), the addition amount of CNF, and the CNF/SDAs amount ratio play important roles in forming the holed silicalite-1. The synthesis route that preliminarily mixes CNF with SDAs in a series of controlled conditions is particularly beneficial for the formation of the holed silicalite-1 with mesoporosity and larger pores because the CNF-SDAs composite structure benefits the zeolite growth closely encompassing CNF inside the crystal structure. It also promotes the preferential formation of the orthorhombic phase vicinal to the CNF surface, namely, the surface of the formed internal holes or cracks, with the twin-type crystal size reduced as compared to the non-CNF-templated sample. On the contrary, the synthesis route that mixes CNF with SDAs–silicate composite ions tends to modify the twin-type crystal shape at the same time to form small but uniform well-crystallized particles with less holes or cracks and a dominative monoclinic phase. It was considered that both the inter-subunit structural defect and silanol defect whose content is increased with CNF addition influence the adsorptivity of MTBE and NDMA. Owing to the small twin-type crystal size, the smaller crystal subunits, and the favored short path from the surface of internal holes or cracks, the holed silicalite-1 derived from the CNF and SDA premixture assures the easiest access of adsorbate molecules to the most energetically favored sites and is most appropriate for the adsorption of both MTBE and NDMA among the examined zeolites.

Reinforcing and release controlling effect of cellulose nanofiber in sodium caseinate films activated by nanoemulsified cinnamon essential oil

Abstract In this study, sodium caseinate (SC) nanocomposite active films were prepared by the addition of 5% (w/w of SC) cinnamon essential oil nanoemulsion (CEO-NE), as active agent, and 2.5 and 5% (w/w of SC) cellulose nanofiber (CNF), as reinforcing additive. The morphological characteristics, tensile properties, water vapor permeability (WVP), moisture absorption, color properties, release profile and the antioxidant/antimicrobial activity of the films were studied. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) test confirmed the increase in the crystallinity of the films by the addition of CNF. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) approved the reduction of porous structure in the presence of CNF. Both moisture absorption and WVP of the SC films decreased, while the mechanical properties were improved by the addition of CNF and CEO-NE. The transparency and yellowness index increased by the addition of CNF and CEO-NE. CNF exhibited release controlling effect on CEO. The films containing CEO-NE and 2.5% CNF showed the highest antioxidant activity (66.04%). The CEO-NE loaded films had weak antimicrobial activity against S.aureus, E.coli, S.enteritidis and P.aeroginosa. This research demonstrated that the SC film reinforced with CNF and activated by CEO-NE would be a suitable candidate for the shelf life extension of different perishable foods.

Synthesis of mesoporous γ-Al2O3 by using cellulose nanofiber as template for hydrodesulfurization of dibenzothiophene

Mesoporous γ-Al2O3 materials with different channel properties were successfully synthesised by using cellulose nanofiber (CNF) as template. The corresponding NiMo catalysts were prepared and further evaluated in the hydrodesulfurization (HDS) of dibenzothiophene (DBT). The as-synthesised γ-Al2O3 supports and NiMo catalysts were characterized by XRD, nitrogen adsorption-desorption, H2-TPR, Raman, SEM, TEM, XPS and HRTEM techniques. The NiMo/MA-7 catalyst displayed the highest DBT conversion at all liquid hourly space velocities (LHSVs). At high LHSV of 150 h−1, DBT HDS efficiency over NiMo/MA-7 (∼30%) is about six times than that of the comparison catalyst NiMo/MA-0 (5%) without CNF addition. This outstanding performance attributed to synergistic effects of open mesoporous structure, appropriate dispersion and stacking morphology of active metals, and the suitable MSI (metal-support-interaction). In addition, the products distributions of all catalysts in the HDS of DBT were investigated, and it is found that HYD/DDS ratio was promoted after using CNF as template agent.

The insert effect of cellulose nanofiber layer on glass fiber‐reinforced plastic laminates and their flexural properties

Cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) have the potential to adhere glass fiber-reinforced plastics (GFRPs) without a decrease in their mechanical properties. In this study, we inserted two CNF layers between GFRP laminates and evaluated their flexural properties. The insert of epoxy resin with CNF of 0.1 wt% layers, increased the flexural strength of GFRP by 125%, whereas the flexural modulus of CNF layer inserted GFRP laminates was constant (28 ± 0.67 GPa). Moreover, we evaluated the flexural properties of a single CNF layer and revealed that even an extremely slight CNF (0.04 wt%) addition drastically increased the flexural strength and fracture elongation of epoxy resin by 130% and 180%, respectively.

Structural and mechanical properties of fibrous poly (caprolactone)/gelatin nanocomposite incorporated with cellulose nanofibers

To proceed with the electrospun poly (caprolactone) (PCL)/gelatin (Gel) combinations, the current research was aimed to explore the incorporation of cellulose nanofibers (CNF) into the PCL/Gel blends for the first time. Accordingly, various amounts of CNF were added to different ratios of PCL/Gel, and the corresponding electrospun nanocomposites were examined. Observing morphology via scanning electron microscopy proved, unexpectedly, increasing fibers diameter upon CNF addition into PCL/Gel blends. Mechanical analysis in tensile mode revealed more brittle electrospun PCL/Gel when more Gel was included into the blend due to higher Young’s modulus and lower ultimate tensile strength and strain at break. Addition of various contents of CNF led to strain reduction while displayed a summit-like curve for UTS and modulus, where registered maximum values at 2 wt% CNF for all PCL/Gel/CNF. Among the electrospun nanocomposites the highest UTS (3.24 ± 0.22 MPa) belonged to sample including 70 wt% PCL, 30 wt% Gel, and 2 wt% CNF (P70/2CNF), while P30/2CNF recorded maximum modulus (93.89 ± 10.44 MPa). The wide-angle X-ray scattering confirmed increase in PCL crystallinity upon CNF incorporation Furthermore, the presence of PCL, Gel, and CNF in electrospun composites was confirmed with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Degradability of electrospun nanocomposites was carried out in PBS solution, which showed that CNF addition reduced degradation rate of PCL/Gel blends.

Cottonseed protein-based wood adhesive reinforced with nanocellulose

Although protein-based adhesives are eco-friendly, sustainable, and biodegradable, continued improvement in their adhesive performance is desirable. In this work, the effect of adding nanocellulose particles to cottonseed protein-based wood adhesives was studied. Cellulose nanofibers (CNF) were found to be most beneficial at about a 2% additive level, giving 22% improvement in dry adhesive strength over the cottonseed protein control. Cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) were optimal at about 10% additive level, giving 16% strength improvement relative to cottonseed protein alone. The hot water resistance of cottonseed protein isolate was also improved with CNF addition, but not with CNC addition. For comparison, soy protein isolate was also studied and showed about the same relative dry strength improvements with nanocellulose addition, but improvement of hot water resistance was less apparent. Infrared and thermogravimetric analysis suggested that the protein and the nanocellulose were interacting with each other. Thus, CNF may be a useful additive to cottonseed protein formulations used as wood adhesives.

Tannin-furanic resin foam reinforced with cellulose nanofibers (CNF)

In this study, tannin-furanic resin was directly mixed with different percentages of cellulose nanofibers (CNF) (0.1% and 0.2% based on the solid content of tannin resin) to obtain tannin-furanic resin reinforced foam. The microscopic investigation showed that the CNF were dispersed homogeneously in the tannin-furanic resin aqueous solution. The impact of CNF addition on the properties of the tannin foam, such as the foaming process, foam density, cell morphology, and mechanical properties as well as the thermal insulation and flammability were studied. The results disclosed that tiny amounts of CNF in the foam formulation could improve the compressive strength of tannin-furanic resin foam especially with 0.2 wt% loading of CNF. The reinforced foams showed smaller pore size and faster foaming without significantly affecting the thermal and flammability properties.

Reinforcement of layer-by-layer self-assembly coating modified cellulose nanofibers to reduce the flammability of polyvinyl alcohol

Cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) were modified with 2 bilayers coating composed of polyethlenimine (PEI), melamine and phytic acid using a layer-by-layer self-assembly technique. The (PEI + melamine/phytic acid)2 based coating was successfully deposited on the surface of modified cellulose nanofibers (MCNFs). Herein, the CNF referred to the carbon source and the phytic acid was chosen as the acid source. Polyethylenimine and melamine served as the blowing agents. Then the CNF and MCNF were introduced to the polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) matrix to investigate the thermal decomposition, flammability, light transmittance and mechanical properties of the PVA/CNF and PVA/MCNF composites. The thermal decomposition of PVA-MCNF-6 (with 6 wt% MCNF) was retarded compared with that of pure PVA. Meanwhile, the addition of 6 wt% MCNF obviously reduced the peak heat release rate of PVA, as evidenced by the 37% reduction. The PVA/CNF and PVA/MCNF composites exhibited similar light transmittance compared with the pure PVA film. Moreover, the addition of CNFs in the PVA matrix resulted in higher tensile strength and elongation at break than those of the PVA matrix.

Effect of Cellulose Nanofiber (CNF) Surface Treatment on Cellular Structures and Mechanical Properties of Polypropylene/CNF Nanocomposite Foams via Core-Back Foam Injection Molding.

Herein, lightweight nanocomposite foams with expansion ratios ranging from 2–10-fold were fabricated using an isotactic polypropylene (iPP) matrix and cellulose nanofiber (CNF) as the reinforcing agent via core-back foam injection molding (FIM). Both the native and modified CNFs, including the different degrees of substitution (DS) of 0.2 and 0.4, were melt-prepared and used for producing the polypropylene (PP)/CNF composites. Foaming results revealed that the addition of CNF greatly improved the foamability of PP, reaching 2–3 orders of magnitude increases in cell density, in comparison to those of the neat iPP foams. Moreover, tensile test results showed that the incorporation of CNF increased the tensile modulus and yield stress of both solid and 2-fold foamed PP, and a greater reinforcing effect was achieved in composites containing modified CNF. In the compression test, PP/CNF composite foams prepared with a DS of 0.4 exhibited dramatic improvements in mechanical performance for 10-fold foams, in comparison to iPP, with increases in the elastic modulus and collapse stress of PP foams of 486% and 468%, respectively. These results demonstrate that CNF is extraordinarily helpful in enhancing the foamability of PP and reinforcing PP foams, which has importance for the development of lightweight polymer composite foams containing a natural nanofiber.

Cellulose nanofiber (CNF) as a versatile filler for the preparation of bamboo pulp based tissue paper handsheets

Tissue paper that is prepared from bamboo has a very promising future in the world, especially in China, thanks to the various merits of bamboo fibers. However, the water absorption behavior and mechanical properties of bamboo pulp based tissue paper need to be improved due to the inherent drawbacks of bamboo fiber, such as high stiffness, weak interaction between bamboo fibers etc. Hence, cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) were combined with bamboo fibers before the tissue paper-making process, to improve the water absorption behavior and mechanical properties of tissue paper. The hypotheses are that: (1) CNFs themselves possess large specific surface area and abundant hydroxyl groups as well, thus enhancing the hydrophilicity of tissue paper; and (2) the added CNFs can form 3D structures in tissue paper, thus providing abundant pores with uniform small size, which would facilitate the capillary effect for water absorption; and (3) more hydrogen bonds will be formed between CNF and bamboo fibers, thus improving the strength properties of tissue paper, thanks to the excellent mechanical and physical properties of CNF. The results from water absorption and tensile strength tests of bamboo handsheets indicated that the addition of CNFs can increase the water absorption capacity from 6.6 to 8.7 g/g when the CNF dosage was 10 wt% (based on the dried pulp). The water retention value of prepared bamboo fibers increased from 163 to 190% at the same CNF dosage, the tensile index increased from 18.5 to 24.5 N m/g as well. The results from the bulk and pore size analyses, FTIR, as well as SEM images of tissue paper also evidenced the conclusions above. Cellulose nanofiber (CNF) as a versatile filler for the preparation of bamboo pulp based tissue paper with improved water absorption behavior and mechanical properties

Amphiphilic cellulose nanofiber-interwoven graphene aerogel monolith for dyes and silicon oil removal

Monolithic graphene oxide (GO) and reduced GO (rGO) aerogel is recently receiving a great deal of concern as a promising adsorbent, whose structure and surface properties, however, are anticipated to be improved and adapted to the adsorption of organic contaminants with various polarities and ionic properties. Herein, super strong and hydrophilic cellulose nanofiber (CNF) was exploited as a cross-linker to interweave in between rGO layers so as to tune and balance the structural and surface properties (hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity) of the monolith. It was found that mechanical property of the monolith changes stepwise with the addition of CNF and can be greatly improved by proportion with CNF irrespective of a little sacrifice in electrical conductivity. Filling and further formation of aggregating bundle structure of CNFs in rGO monolith gradually decreases porosity at compensation of a slight increase in monolithic volume. CNF plays a critical role in separating rGO layers, leading to formation of the exposed and uniformly dispersed rGO layers in the monoliths. It can increase the amount of oxygen containing groups at the same time to generate carbonized moieties, thus ameliorating both hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity of the monolithic aerogel. The unique structural change and improved amphiphile surface property due to the addition of CNF can greatly enhance affinity of the hybridized monolith toward the adsorption of not only hydrophilic (both anionic and cationic) dyes but also hydrophobic organic oil.

Preparation and characterization of composite scaffold of alginate and cellulose nanofiber from ramie

Alginate scaffold with high porosity has great potential in the field of tissue engineering due to its biocompatibility and degradability. However, the poor mechanical performance of pure alginate scaffold has limited its use in many applications. Cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) have attracted attention as reinforcing agents to fabricate composite scaffolds with alginate. In this paper, CNF obtained from raw ramie fibers was incorporated with sodium alginate to make a composite scaffold by the freeze-drying method. CNF contents of 0.025, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, and 1.6% were selected to study the effect of CNF on scaffold characterization. The composite scaffold exhibited fewer pores but more compact structure than the pure alginate scaffold. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was used to study the changes in the functional groups between the ramie fiber and its CNF, pure alginate scaffold, and the composite scaffold. X-ray diffraction indicated that the crystallinity of scaffold increased with addition of CNF. The mechanical performance of scaffold was successfully improved by adding CNF, but the porosity and swelling ratio were decreased. Hence, by combining CNF with alginate, the porous structure, mechanical properties, and swelling behaviors could be tailored, which could expand its use in the field of tissue engineering.

Fabrication and characterization of the bionanocomposite film based on whey protein biopolymer loaded with TiO2 nanoparticles, cellulose nanofibers and rosemary essential oil

A bionanocomposite film based on whey protein isolate (WPI), cellulose nanofibers (CNFs), titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles and rosemary essential oil (REO) was prepared by casting/evaporation method and characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The effects of various concentrations of CNFs (2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10%), TiO2 (0.5, 1 and 1.5%) and REO (1.5 and 2%) were investigated on the physicomechanical, barrier analyses, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties of bionanocomposite films. The results showed that the simultaneous combination of mineral compounds (TiO2) and phytochemicals (REO) with WPI/CNFs films had remarkable effects on the studied properties. Water resistance of WPI/CNFs composite films increased significantly with the addition of TiO2 and REO. The results of FTIR spectroscopy showed suitable interactions between TiO2 and REO with WPI/CNFs blend, while the results of SEM confirmed good and homogeneous dispersion of TiO2 NPs into the films. Addition of CNFs (7.5%) and TiO2 (1%) has led to a significant increase in tensile strength (TS) and Young’s modulus (YM), while elongation at break (EB) reduced. However, the addition of REO, regardless of TiO2 nanoparticles addition, decreased TS and YM, EB significantly increased. In addition, WPI/CNFs7.5% films that have been incorporated with both TiO2 and REO, had shown lower EB and higher TS and YM. On the other hand, TiO2 and REO incorporation reduced transparency and increased hydrophobicity of WPI/CNFs films. Simultaneous combination of TiO2 and REO into WPI/CNFs films, showed a strong antibacterial activity against pathogenic and spoilage bacteria, especially Gram posetive bacteria. The developed films exhibited good morphology features, improved physicomechanical properties and appropriate antibacterial and antioxidant behavior due to the excellent dispersion of the TiO2 and REO into the WPI/CNFs matrix, which are the important properties required for packaging applications. Finally, the results propose for the use of CNFs as a green reinforcement and good replacement for mineral reinforcement and use of these ecofriendly nanocomposite films in packaging industries.

Preparation and characterization of nanocomposite films containing starch and cellulose nanofibers

Starch nanocomposites films were successfully prepared using the isolated cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) at loading from 5 to 20% by solution casting. The morphology, crystallinity, surface hydrophobicity, water vapor permeability, opacity, and mechanical test of nanocomposites films were studied. The CNFs were uniformly distributed within these films up to 15% of CNFs. The incorporation of 20% CNFs in the composite film produced selective aggregation and, thus, inhomogeneity of the CNFs. The contact angle values increased from 49.46° (starch-only films) to 88.57° (CNFs loading at 20%). The incorporation of CNFs hinders the diffusion or permeability of water vapor through the composite. Addition of CNFs to starch films resulted in significant improvement in glass transition temperature (Tg), tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of nanocomposites films.

Production of cellulose nanofibers from Alfa grass and application as reinforcement for polyvinyl alcohol

ABSTRACTThe work reported demonstrates an simple method of extracting cellulose nanofibers (CNF) from cellulose microfibers (CMF) obtained from the plant Stipatenacissima. Here, a method for the production of CNF from CMF extracted from Alfa grass by exfoliation in polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) solution, is demonstrated. The CMF were produced in powder form and exfoliated in PVA aqueous solution to produce composites with 2, 4, 5 and 10 wt-% of CNF. Scanning Electron Microscopy demonstrated exfoliation of CMF, dispersion of the CNF and wetting by the polymer. The composites were characterised by thermogravimetry, differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction and tensile testing. The addition of CNF to PVA reduced the crystallinity degree of PVA. The large increase of the Young’s modulus from 38 to 113% (relative to pure PVA) for composites with 2 to 10 wt-% of CNF incorporation is consistent with the extensive exfoliation of CMF into CNF and its excellent interface with PVA.

One-pot nanofibrillation of cellulose and nanocomposite production in a twin-screw extruder

Oil palm mesocarp fiber (OPMF) is rich in cellulose and suitable to be used as raw material for the production of cellulose nanofiber (CNF) and biocomposite. Recently, there have been reports on the use of CNF as filler in polypropylene (PP) for improving the mechanical properties of PP, however the process requires two steps: (i) nanofibrillation for CNF production and (ii) biocomposite compounding. In this study, a one-pot process was developed whereby nanofibrillation of cellulose and subsequently melt-blending of the CNF with PP were conducted at once, in a twin-screw extruder. Morphological analysis of the biocomposites by SEM showed that the cellulose was successfully fibrillated into CNF and compounded homogeneously with PP. The highest tensile strength, Young’s modulus, flexural strength, and flexural modulus recorded were 34.9 ± 0.5 MPa, 12.1 ± 0.1 GPa, 59.3 ± 1.3 MPa, and 2.3 ± 0.05 GPa, respectively when 3 % CNF was used in the biocomposite. The reinforcement of CNF-OPMF in PP improved the mechanical properties of the biocomposite by 33.4 % compared to neat PP. It is interesting to note that the addition of CNF managed to improve the crystallinity of the biocomposite (54.6 %) compared to neat PP (50.1 %), despite of the lower crystallinity of CNF compared to PP. This observation can be attributed to the high density of covalent bonds per cross-sectional area and the large number of hydrogen bonding sites. Additionally, the observation can be explained by the role of CNF in composite which acted as nucleation agent, which eventually increased the crystallinity of the biocomposite.