Actual Social Support Research Articles

Social safeness and eating disorder symptoms: a correlational study exploring associations of social safeness, eating disorder symptoms, social support and shame in a non-clinical young adult sample

BackgroundA greater experience of “social safeness” in social relationships has been associated with reduced general psychopathology. This association appears to be independent of the perceived level of actual social support. The tripartite model of emotion suggests that experiences of social safeness may be associated with increased activation of the ‘soothing system’, inhibiting the experience of threat and shame. Associations of eating disorder (ED) pathology and shame have been well established. This study aims to answer the questions: Is there an association with experience of social safeness and ED symptoms in a non-clinical sample? Are any associations independent of perceived or received social support?MethodsA non-clinical sample of 80 young adults (aged 18–25) completed an online survey. The survey included measures of ED symptoms, social safeness, perceived and received social support and shame. Correlation and hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to explore cross-sectional associations between variables.ResultsIncreased sense of social safeness was strongly correlated with reduced ED symptoms. Social safeness explained unique variance in ED symptoms independent of received and perceived social support. Shame and ED symptoms were positively correlated, while shame and safeness were negatively correlated.ConclusionsThis study presents evidence of an association between the experience of social safeness and ED symptoms. The impact of the emotional experience of social safeness appears independent of current social support, and may be associated with increased activation of the soothing system, and reduced activation of the threat system and experiences of shame, as in the tripartite model of EDs. Further research could explore these associations in clinical populations and explore whether reduced social safeness is a risk factor for the development / maintenance of EDs, or could be a useful target for ED interventions.Plain english summaryThis study looked for a possible link between having a greater general experience of ‘safeness’ in social relationships, and reduced eating disorder symptoms, in a healthy young adult sample. Eighty young adult participants completed online questionnaire measures of eating disorder symptoms, social safeness, social support, and shame. Having a greater sense of ‘social safeness’ was strongly correlated with having lower eating disorder symptoms. This effect seemed to exist independently of the level of social support someone reported. Shame was positively correlated with ED symptoms and negatively correlated with social safeness. These findings are consistent with the ‘tripartite model’ of emotion: the emotional experience of social safeness may be linked with increased activation of the soothing system and reduced activation of shame. A link between reduced experience of ‘social safeness’ and eating disorder symptoms may have useful implications for understanding and intervening with eating disorders.

Social support needs of caregivers rearing children with severe motor and intellectual disabilities at home in Japan.

In Japan, recently, the number of children with severe motor and intellectual disabilities (SMID) is steadily increasing. Caregivers such as parents and family members are struggling with how to live with their children at home and in the community after discharge. The current study aimed to explore the social support needs faced by caregivers while rearing children with SMID in order to identify effective means of social support in Japan. We conducted a cross-sectional survey of the primary caregivers of children with SMID at home through special-needs elementary, junior high, and senior high schools nationwide, using a self-administered, anonymous questionnaire to investigate the actual social support needs of the caregivers. All statements of social support need were coded using Krippendorff content analysis. Questionnaire returns were obtained from 1,176 families, and the descriptions of 1,173 families were included in the analysis. The results of the analysis showed that the needs of the caregivers consisted of seven categories. The social support needs expressed by the caregivers are necessary findings for Japan today, both for the soft side, such as the development of local systems and regulations to support these families, and for the hard side, such as the increase and improvement of facilities and equipment.

Postnatal depression and social support during the COVID-19 pandemic among Arab women in Jordan and the United States: A comparative study

<b>Objectives:</b> To compare the levels of postnatal depression experienced by Arab women in Jordan and the United States (USA) and the impact of social support during the COVID-19 pandemic.<br /> <b>Methodology:</b> Participants were recruited through online survey links and social media channels, as well as face to face. A sample comprising 434 women in the postnatal period participated in the study that included Arab women in the USA and Jordan women, responding to a comprehensive questionnaire that encompassed inquiries about their pandemic status, demographic characteristics, postnatal depression, and social support. CES-D depression scale was used to determine the level of depression.<br /> <b>Findings:</b> The depression mean score among women in the postnatal period from Jordan was 24.90±4.14 and the depression mean score among Arab women in the USA was 27.70±4.49. The prevalence of depression among Jordanian women was 52.8% and the prevalence of depression among Arab American women was 73.0%. There is a significant difference between both groups in depression during the postnatal period with more prevalence among Arab American women (t=7.64, p=.010). There are no significant differences between groups in tangible and actual social support among both groups (t=1.50, p=.127).<br /> <b>Conclusions</b>: This nationwide study conducted among postnatal women in Jordan has shed light on several critical findings. Our study found that Arab women in the USA were suffering from more depression compared to Jordanian women. Moreover, our research highlighted a significant inverse relationship between social support and postnatal depression, indicating that as social support increased, levels of depression decreased among women in the postnatal period.

Posttraumatic stress symptoms in adolescents and young adults with a chronic somatic disease: a mixed-methods study

BackgroundAdolescents and young adults (AYA) with a chronic somatic disease (CD) have a 3-fold higher risk of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) than healthy controls. In addition, elevated post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) have a negative impact on CD severity, treatment adherence, health problems and functional impairment. However, a more detailed understanding of this comorbidity is lacking.MethodsAYA with type 1 diabetes mellitus, juvenile idiopathic arthritis or cystic fibrosis (12–21 years of age) and elevated anxiety and/or depression symptoms, as well as their reference persons (≥ 18 years of age), completed online questionnaires in self- or observer report. The most stressful event related to the CD was reported descriptively. Questionnaires were used to assess PTSS, anxious and depressive symptoms, actual overall health, coping, personal growth and social support. Qualitative content analysis, linear regression models and correlations were used for mixed methods analysis.ResultsAccording to the reports of n = 235 AYA (mean age 15.61; 73% girls) and n = 70 reference persons, four categories were identified as the most stressful events due to CD: (1) psychological burden (40% of AYA / 50% of reference persons); (2) CD self-management (32% / 43%); (3) social burden (30% / 27%); and (4) physical impairment (23% / 16%). 37% of AYA reported clinically relevant PTSS due to CD. The best predictors of PTSS severity were anxious-depressive symptoms, emotional coping, personal growth and current overall health (F(4, 224) = 59.404, R² = 0.515, p < .001). Of all categories, psychological (β = 0.216, p = .002) and social burden (β = 0.143, p = .031) showed significant association with the severity of PTSS (F(4, 230) = 4.489, R² = 0.072, p = .002). The more categories the most stressful event addressed, the higher was the PTSS symptom severity (r = .168, p = .010).ConclusionsMany AYA showed clinically relevant PTSS and reported experiencing stressful events in several areas of life through their CD. The association between the stressful event categories and other variables could help identify AYA with CD who need psychological interventions the most.Trial registration: German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS): DRKS00016714, registered on 25/03/2019 and DRKS00017161, registered on 17/09/201.

Gaps in awareness and practice of healthy lifestyles among individuals at high risk of colorectal cancer: A qualitative evidence synthesis.

To systematically examine and review relevant qualitative studies exploring the current lifestyle among individuals at high risk of colorectal cancer (CRC), and their awareness of the role of a healthy lifestyle in CRC prevention. The increasing incidence and mortality of CRC have presented a serious threat against the health and life of people. As the major population affected by CRC, the lifestyle of individuals at a high risk of CRC is attracting increasing attention. A qualitative evidence synthesis using the Thomas and Harden method and the PRISMA 2020 checklist provided by the EQUATOR network were used. Literature was retrieved from PubMed, Web of Science, the Cochrane Library, Embase, CINAHL and PsycINFO from the inception to December 2021. Two reviewers independently screened the titles and abstracts and identified the eligible studies. Critical appraisals of each included study were performed. Thematic analysis was used to guide the data synthesis. The data from nine articles were analysed. Three interpretive themes were extracted that formed an overarching synthesis of the experience with healthy lifestyles among high-risk individuals of CRC. The findings suggested that these individuals with limited awareness of CRC and personal risks lacked sufficient knowledge about the relationship between lifestyle and CRC, and their attitudes and practices towards the role of a healthy lifestyle in CRC prevention were also diversified. Professionals can potentially provide personalised guidance for healthy lifestyles based on knowledge of prevention, the actual background and social support of individuals at high risk of CRC. Considering that knowledge gaps and health beliefs among these individuals are the premise blocking their adoption of a healthy lifestyle, the findings of this review may make contributions to the design and content of public health policy and prevention programs. No patient or public contribution.

Prevalence and psychosocial risk factors of nonsuicidal self-injury among adolescents during the COVID-19 outbreak.

The research investigated the prevalence of nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) during the COVID-19 outbreak and identified the psychosocial risk factors among junior high school students in Taiwan. Cross-sectional design was applied and 1,060 participants (Mage = 14.66, SD = 0.86 years) were recruited into the study. The prevalence of NSSI was found to be 40.9% (95% confidence interval, 37.9%-43.9%) during the COVID-19 outbreak. The results suggested that the self-injurers group were mostly female, and scored significantly higher in neuroticism, depression, impulsivity, alexithymia, virtual social support, dissatisfaction with academic performance, and lower in subjective wellbeing, self-esteem, actual social support, and family function than the non-injurers group. In addition, high neuroticism, low self-esteem, high virtual social support, high impulsivity, and high alexithymia were independently predictive in the logistic regression analysis. The principal results of this study suggested that NSSI was extremely prevalent among adolescents during the COVID-19 outbreak, and in particularly, personality and virtual environment risk factors and enhancing self-esteem should be the focus of NSSI preventive strategies when targeting this age population. Our results provide a reference towards designing NSSI prevention programs geared toward the high school population during the COVID-19 pandemic.

A pszichoszociális tényezők szerepe koszorúér-betegséggel élő személyek fizikai aktivitásának folyamatában

Objective: Regular physical activity plays an important role as a protective factor in the treatment of coronary artery disease. Therefore, understanding the psychosocial factors that are involved in the process of changing and maintaining physical activity in the long term is fundamental in supporting patients’ lifestyle changes. The Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) health behavior model provides a practical, theoretically grounded, and empirically validated conceptual framework for understanding and predicting these factors. The present study aims to explore the factors involved in the process of physical activity of persons with coronary artery disease. Methods: The present longitudinal study included 117 patients with coronary artery disease (n = 117; 77 men, 40 women; mean age = 62.48 ± 6.22) who underwent CABG or PCI for the first time. At three measurement points, we examined the factors of the HAPA model and the physical activity of the patients. The test the direct and indirect associations of the variables structural equations modeling with latent variables was applied. Results: In the formation of behavioral intention the positive outcome expectancies proved to be an important factor. In translating intention into behavior, the constructs of planning, self-efficacy regarding the actual behavior, self-monitoring, and social support seemed to have significant roles. Together, the variables included in the present model explained 41% of the variance of physical activity. Conclusions: The results draw attention to the role of expectations about the positive consequences of physical activity as well as the importance of planning, self-efficacy, self-monitoring, and social support, which thus can be important factors in supporting patients with coronary artery disease to change their exercise habits in the long run. By incorporating these factors into the psychosocial intervention of patients, it is reasonable to expect that regular exercise habits formed during cardiological rehabilitation can persist in the long term.

Social support is associated with technology use in old age.

The use of technological innovations can play asignificant role in healthy aging and social participation in old age; however, it is not well understood how social contexts can influence or support older adults' use of technology. This study explored the associations between technology use, perceived technology-related support and actual technology-related social support. It was expected that older adults who perceived having more supportive resources available would be more likely to receive actual support in technology-related issues, which, in turn would explain a greater use of technology in everyday life. The data are based on asample of 107 community-dwelling older adults between 60 and 93years of age (mean age = 73.66 years, 40% male). Measures included self-reports of actual technology-related support, perceived technology-related support, the use of different devices related to digital information and communication technology and personal characteristics (e.g. chronological age, gender, education and functional limitations). Apath model was used to explore the research hypotheses. Actual technology-related support received was positively associated with agreater number of devices used. Participants received more support with technology when they perceived a greater availability of supportive resources. The actual support received mediated the influence of perceived support and functional limitations on technology use. The results of this study show that the provision of supportive behavior is associated with the actual use of technology. Moreover, the findings shed light on the individual and contextual factors that explain differences in actual support received.

The role of social support in family socio-economic disparities in depressive symptoms during early pregnancy: Evidence from a Chinese birth cohort

BackgroundFew studies have examined the association between a composite measure of family socio-economic position (SEP)22SEP, socio-economic position. and depressive symptoms among Chinese pregnant women, nor any potential underlying mechanisms which may be amenable to preventative interventions. MethodsWe investigated the association between a composite SEP measure and depressive symptoms during early pregnancy, and tested for mediation by social support and moderation by parity in the Born in Guangzhou Cohort Study (n = 12,382) using adjusted logistic regression and causal mediation analysis. ResultsIn this population, 18.4% of women experienced depressive symptoms before the 20th gestational week. Compared with the highest quartile, the lowest SEP score quartile was associated with a higher risk of depressive symptoms (OR 1.50, 95% CI 1.31–1.71), which was more pronounced among multiparous women than nulliparous women (P for interaction <0.001). Social support mediated the association between SEP and depressive symptoms, with greater proportion mediated in nulliparous women (73.4% for the lowest SEP score quartile) than multiparous women (30.5%). LimitationsDepressive symptoms were measured by Self-rated Depression Scale, which is not designed as a clinical diagnosis tool for depression. We only had information on perceived social support but not actual social support, although these two parameters were modestly correlated. ConclusionLower SEP was associated with higher risk of depressive symptoms in pregnant women, driven by social support. And the association between SEP and depressive symptoms and mediation by social support were modified by parity. Whether this association extends to the post pregnancy period or is amenable to cost-effective interventions should be investigated in further studies.

Do the rich get digitally richer? Quantity and quality of support for digital engagement

ABSTRACTThis paper asks what predicts having access to and using social support networks that might help an individual in using the Internet. Following the course taken by the digital divide or digital inclusion research, this paper uses socio-cultural, socio-economic, social, and digital indicators to predict access to and the type of potential and actual social support networks that might help an individual in using the Internet. In addition, the paper examines the quality of the support received which is neglected in most investigations that mainly focus on quantitative indicators of support. The study draws on a representative survey conducted in the Netherlands; 1149 responses were obtained. The results show that while there are no real inequalities in access to and use of support, the quality of the support that people access is unequally distributed replicating existing patterns of disadvantage. Thus, access to support is another level at which the digital divide manifests and strengthens itself. Those who experience most problems online also seem to have the most difficulty obtaining high-quality support even when it is available, creating an even larger ‘gap’ between those who do and do not need support.

When perceptions defy reality: The relationships between depression and actual and perceived Facebook social support

BackgroundAlthough the relationship between depression and “offline” social support is well established, numerous questions surround the relationship between “online” social support and depression. We explored this issue by examining the social support dynamics that characterize the way individuals with varying levels of depression (Study 1) and SCID-diagnosed clinically depressed and non-depressed individuals (Study 2) interact with Facebook, the world's largest online social network. MethodUsing a novel methodology, we examined how disclosing positive or negative information on Facebook influences the amount of social support depressed individuals (a) actually receive (based on actual social support transactions recorded on Facebook walls) and (b) think they receive (based on subjective assessments) from their Facebook network. ResultsContrary to prior research indicating that depression correlates with less actual social support from “offline” networks, across both studies depression was positively correlated with social support from Facebook networks when participants disclosed negative information (p=.02 in Study 1 and p=.06 in Study 2). Yet, depression was negatively correlated with how much social support participants thought they received from their Facebook networks (p=.005 in Study 1 and p=.001 in Study 2). LimitationsThe sample size was relatively small in Study 2, reflecting difficulties of recruiting individuals with Major Depressive Disorder. ConclusionsThese results demonstrate that an asymmetry characterizes the relationship between depression and different types of Facebook social support and further identify perceptions of Facebook social support as a potential intervention target. (243 words; 250 max)

Factors determining social (interpersonal) support in patients with vertebro-spinal cord injury

Objective: to study relationships between the specific features of the social network of patients with vertebro-spinal cord injury sequels (VSIS), subjectively perceived and actual social support, and social skills assessment by the patients. Patients and methods . In 2014–2015, a psychodiagnostic study was conducted in 41 VSIS patients (32 men and 9 women), including 18- to 20-year-olds (n=5), 21- to 30-year-olds (n=18), 31- to 40-year-olds (n=9), 41- to 50-year-olds (n=4), and patients over 50 years of age (n=5). Paraplegia (paraparesis) and tetraplegia (tetraparesis) were present in 30 and 11 patients, respectively. The duration of VSIS was 1 to 125 months. Correlations between different types of subjectively perceived and actual social support and the parameters of a social network of the patients were assessed. Results. Correlation analysis has showed that there is a need for psychotherapeutic interventions related to social network extension for patients so that the latter should have sufficient and persistent interpersonal support.

Role of vision loss, functional limitations and the supporting network in depression in a general population.

Although the prevalence of depression in visually impaired older persons is high, the association between vision loss and depression seems to be influenced by factors other than visual impairment. In this study, the role of vision loss, functional limitations and social network characteristics in relation to depressive symptoms was investigated. Cross-sectional data (N = 1237) from the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam were used to investigate the prevalence of depression (Center of Epidemiological Studies-Depression scale) within subgroups with increasing vision loss. In linear regression models, functional limitations and social network characteristics were examined as possible mediators in the association between vision loss and depression. Having a partner was considered to be a potential moderator. Although a significant linear trend was found in the presence of depressive symptoms with 14% in normally sighted, 23% in mild and 37% in severe vision loss (χ(2)(1) = 14.9; p < 0.001), vision loss was not an independent determinant of depression. Mediators were functional limitations (p < 0.001) and social network size (p = 0.009). No interaction with partner status was found. In the presence of depression, a trend was found with increasing severity of vision loss, indicating the need for more attention in (mental) health care and low-vision rehabilitation. In the general older population, vision loss was not an independent determinant of depression but was mediated by functional limitations and social network size. Rather than receiving actual social support, the idea of having a social network to rely on when needed seemed to be associated with lower levels of depression.

Social support and its association with negative affect in adults who stutter

PurposeThe purpose of the research reported in this manuscript is to clarify the relationship between social support and negative affect for people who stutter. Social support results in many benefits that help individuals to achieve self-esteem, motivation to adjust adaptively, and to experience a sense of belonging. Lack of such support is likely to result in heightened anxiety and negative affect manifesting in many forms. MethodThis study used the Symptom Checklist – Revised (SCL-90-R) and the Significant Others Scale (SOS) to investigate social support and its relationship to negative affect in 200 adults who stutter, with comparisons made to 200 adults who do not stutter. Negative affect was assessed by interpersonal sensitivity, depressive mood and anxiety. The Significant Others Scale was used to provide an indication of the participants’ actual and ideal levels of social support. ResultsIt was found that (i) those participants who stuttered had significantly elevated levels of negative affect across the SCL-90-R domains of interpersonal sensitivity, depressive mood and anxiety; (ii) the group who stuttered was found to have lower levels of actual and ideal social support; and (iii) those who stuttered and who also had low social support had significantly elevated levels of negative affect. ConclusionResults highlight the potentially harmful influence that poor social support has on mood states for adults who stutter. These findings have implications for treatment such as the necessity to address and integrate social support and social integration issues in the treatment process for adults who stutter.Educational objectives: The reader will be able to: (a) describe the methodology of assessing social support using the Social Support Scale (SOS); (b) apply the concept of assessing social support in stuttering to treatment; (c) describe the protective contribution of helpful social support for adults who stutter; (d) describe the relationship between social support and negative mood states.

The Relationships Among Different Types of Social Support Accessed by Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury Survivors

AbstractAim: This exploratory study examined the relationships among different types of social support accessed by patients with traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). Method: Using a cross-sectional study design, 20 SCI patients of workforce age discharged from the Royal Talbot Rehabilitation Hospital, Melbourne, Australia during 2007 were assessed on a range of demographic, injury and social support variables. Results: Higher quality interactions (i.e., actual social support) were significantly associated with greater social integration (i.e., structural social support) and higher perceived social support. However, community integration and social integration, which measure different aspects of structural social support, were essentially unrelated. Conclusions: Actual social support influences perceived social support and social integration. Theoretically, these results suggest that actual social support influences the two main opposing models that explain the relationship between social support and wellbeing: the stress-buffering model (for perceived social support) and the main-effects model (for structural social support). From a research perspective, the use of well-defined types of social support, and psychometrically sound measures, is critical for assessing the influence of social support on rehabilitation outcomes. To effectively match rehabilitation efforts with SCI survivors' needs, future research should examine which types of social support best predict particular rehabilitation outcomes.

Social support and Quality of Life: a cross-sectional study on survivors eight months after the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake

BackgroundThe 2008 Wenchuan earthquake resulted in extensive loss of life and physical and psychological injuries for survivors. This research examines the relationship between social support and health-related quality of life for the earthquake survivors.MethodsA multistage cluster sampling strategy was employed to select participants from 11 shelters in nine counties exposed to different degrees of earthquake damage, for a questionnaire survey. The participants were asked to complete the Short Form 36 and the Social Support Rating Scale eight months after the earthquake struck. A total of 1617 participants returned the questionnaires. The quality of life of the survivors (in the four weeks preceding the survey) was compared with that of the general population in the region. Multivariate logistic regression analysis and canonical correlation analysis were performed to determine the association between social support and quality of life.ResultsThe earthquake survivors reported poorer quality of life than the general population, with an average of 4.8% to 19.62% reduction in scores of the SF-36 (p < 0.001). The multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that those with stronger social support were more likely to have better quality of life. The canonical correlation analysis found that there was a discrepancy between actual social support received and perceived social support available, and the magnitude of this discrepancy was inversely related to perceived general health (rs = 0.467), and positively related to mental health (rs = 0.395).ConclusionSocial support is associated with quality of life in the survivors of the earthquake. More attention needs to be paid to increasing social support for those with poorer mental health.

Exploring Facets of a Social Network to Explicate the Status of Social Support and Its Effects on Stress

International Chinese five-year junior college students were examined with regard to the status of actual social support and perceived stress, the relationship between actual social support and perceived stress, and the status of a social network, in order to explain how actual social support operates. Sixty-four students from a population of 313 responded to the questionnaires which included the Actual Social Support Scale (Jou, 1994), the Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen, Kamarck, &amp; Mermelstein, 1983), and the Measure of Social Support Network Scale (Blyth &amp; Traeger, 1988). Results showed that students in Taiwan exhibit higher perceived stress and experience lower actual social support, higher actual social support may result in lower perceived stress, and the students' social network was limited to segregation with international Chinese college students in Taiwan. This suggests that more social contact with local people may help students to enlarge their social network, thus offering better social support for alleviating perceived stress.

Social support: The movie

There is continued confusion and controversy about the importance of perception versus actual exchange of social support, that I argue in this paper leads erroneously to the conclusion that it is perception that is key. This paper argues that this confusion follows from the lack of study of the time sequence by which social support, and therefore its perception, is accumulated. Unless people are delusional, social support and its appraisal are created primarily as a product of real events in their lives. Most research comparing “perceived” and “received” social support actually compares perceptions of reality that have accumulated over long spans of time to a micro exchange of received support. Further, I illustrate that when social support does not behave as people expected (i.e., there are misperceptions) then people's belief systems about their support change, but, again, based on the facts. In this way, people are depicted as active operators in the support process, such that they make ongoing adjustments in their beliefs and in their actual social support by creating new relationships and how they interact in these relationships so that perceptions and reality match.

Gender Differences in Relationships of Actual and Virtual Social Support to Internet Addiction Mediated through Depressive Symptoms among College Students in Taiwan

This study examined gender differences in the relationships of actual and virtual social support to Internet addiction mediated through depressive symptoms among college students in Taiwan. Results revealed that in females, both actual and virtual social support directly predicted Internet addiction or were mediated through depressive symptoms. However, in males, while Internet addiction was predicted by virtual social support directly or indirectly mediated through depressive symptoms, the link of actual social support to Internet addiction was only mediated through depressive symptoms. Furthermore, in both genders, lower actual social support and higher virtual social support were associated with higher depressive symptoms.

Cross-National Comparison of Social Support Structures between Taiwan and the United States

The study compares the effects of structural bases and functional elements of social support on mental health in Taiwan and the United States, using the study conducted in the United States by Lin, Ye, and Ensel (1999) as a reference. Based on a nationally representative sample of Taiwanese adults (n = 2,835), a fundamental similarity in social support structure and function between the two countries was observed. First, the structural bases of social support had a hierarchical order in their effects on depression: Binding (presence of an intimate relationship) was the strongest in reducing depression, whereas belonging (community participation) was the weakest, with bonding (social networks) in between. Regarding the functional elements, perceived social support was a better protector of mental health than actual social support, a finding in line with previous research. On the other hand, several notable differences in the structural bases and functional elements of social support between the two societies were observed, possibly due to the differential cultural and historical characteristics.