Actual Boundary Conditions Research Articles

Design and experimental verification of composite stiffened panel under combined compression-shear loads

Abstract As an important part of the aircraft, the panel structure accounts for a large proportion of the building block verification system. The real stress state of the aircraft panel is usually not a uniaxial compression or shear, but a combined loading condition in service. In the past, box structure was usually tested for structure selection in the aircraft’s preliminary design phase, which was limited by immature panel test methods and equipment. At present, a general panel test system considering the actual load form and boundary conditions was independently developed by the Aircraft Strength Research Institute of China. A large-scale composite stiffened panel was designed and tested on this test system in this paper. The whole process of the test was monitored by digital image correlation technology and strain gauge measurement. The test process and results were detailed and analyzed. Experimental results show that the failure modes of stiffened panels under combined compression-shear loads include mainly three forms. The first is in the upper part of the panel, which shows a typical shear failure mode and tears along the shear loading direction of the specimen. The second is the fracture of the reinforced piece in the bottom right-hand corner of the specimen due to compression loads. The third form is the large-scale cracking at the junction of the reinforced piece and skin, which may be related to the coupling effect of combined loading.

Experimental Analysis of Heat Transfer Post Quenching of Medium Carbon Steel

<div>Transient temperature analysis is involved in the thermal simulation of the heat treatment process, in which the hot metal temperature changes with respect to time from an initial state to the final state. The critical part of the simulation is to determine the heat transfer coefficient (HTC) between the hot part and the quenching medium or quenchant. In liquid quenching, the heat transfer between the hot metal part and water becomes complicated and it is difficult to determine HTC. In the current experimentation a medium carbon steel EN 9 rod with a diameter of 50 mm and length 100 mm was quenched in water and ethylene glycol mixture with different concentrations. A part model was created; meshed and actual boundary conditions were applied to conduct computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis. In order to validate CFD analysis the experimental trials were conducted. Experimental results showed a reduced cooling rate for the specimen, and also a reduction in heat-carrying capacity of the mixture, which is attributed to the addition of ethylene glycol.</div>

Semi-analytic modeling and experimental verification of arbitrary aero-engine complex spatial pipeline

In-depth research is imperative for complex spatial pipelines with fluid-structure interaction. A comprehensive and universal three-dimensional semi-analytical modeling method is first established for complex fluid-conveying spatial pipelines under the base excitation with arbitrary connections and configurations under different boundary conditions. The virtual spring technology is used to connect the straight and curved pipeline segments with spatial angles and simulate boundary conditions. For a thorough analysis, the actual stiffness of the bracket-clamp system is experimentally measured for the first time. The multi-level coupling dynamic model of part, component, and system levels under actual boundary conditions is established. An efficient method for solving the fluid-structure coupling pipeline system dynamics considering the base excitation is proposed based on energy method. The mid-plane displacement function of the Fourier series is introduced and solved using the principle of modal superposition. Hammer impact modal experiments, ANSYS software and vibration response experiments are performed on spatial pipelines supported by flexible bracket-clamps; the numerical and experimental results support the semi-analytical results. The degenerate model is verified with the simple plane pipelines in other references, and the errors are less than 5 %. The proposed method exhibits broad applicability and generalizability, making it suitable for various configurations and boundary conditions.

Numerical and theoretical approach to evaluate the clamping force and the interlayer gap extent during drilling of stacked materials

In the aeronautical industry, one-shot drilling of stacked materials is a widely adopted and established solution. However, ongoing discussions persist, particularly regarding the issue of interlayer gap formation that arises when two or more unsealed materials are drilled together. This study aims to present a simplified and reproducible theoretical model based on the equation of the elastic curve applied to structural schemes that discretize and describe the interlayer gap phenomenon in the drilling process. The model is designed to estimate the extent of the interlayer gap phenomenon and predict the clamping force required for its reduction when an end-effector is employed as a clamping device during the drilling of stacked sheets. Experimental and finite element analyses were conducted to validate the results of the proposed theoretical model. Each model was developed and applied to a real structural unit of a fuselage panel, considering actual boundary conditions in terms of structural constraints and geometric features of the assembly. The results obtained in this study demonstrate that the proposed one-dimensional theoretical model consistently aligns with experimental and numerical observations obtained through finite element analysis. This offers an effective and readily implementable solution in an industrial context as a tool for sizing the clamping force exerted by a clamping device.

Numerical investigation on knock intensity, combustion, and emissions of a heavy-duty natural gas engine with different hydrogen mixing strategies

With the continuous development of hydrogen energy technology, mixing hydrogen has become a potential method to enhance the performance of natural gas engines and reduce emissions. Aiming to offer guidance for optimizing strategies for mixing hydrogen from the perspectives of knock control and thermal efficiency enhancement, a three-dimensional model of a commercial heavy-duty natural gas engine is constructed based on the actual boundary conditions from a high load bench test. In this study, simulations were conducted under conditions where the hydrogen volume fraction ranged from 0% to 40%. The study explored the effects of two injection strategies, port fuel injection of hydrogen-enriched natural gas (PFI) and port fuel injection of natural gas combined with direct injection of hydrogen into the cylinder (PFI + DI), on engine knocking, performance, and emissions. Results indicate that for various injection strategies, there is an increasing trend in knock intensity (KI) with the higher hydrogen mixing ratio. When the hydrogen volume fraction exceeds 20%, the timing of direct hydrogen injection significantly affects KI. This effect is mainly caused by the distribution of unburned hydrogen at the knock onset crank angle (KOCA). Compared to other injection strategies, the PFI + DI strategy when the direct hydrogen injection time at 120°CA BTDC results in a high concentration of hydrogen near the spark plug at the ignition moment, combined with good mixture uniformity in the cylinder. This leads to the shortest CA0-10 and CA10-90, and achieves a maximum indicated thermal efficiency (ITE) of 44.68% under 20% hydrogen volume fraction. Compared to the original natural gas engine, the ITE increased by 2.9% and the NOx emissions increased by 166%, while the HC and CO emissions decreased by 88% and 53%.

Lightweight steering equipment based on prestressed modal analysis

As the key component to control the driving direction of the vehicle, the steering device always bears large vibration and load. In order to improve structural performance and reduce costs, a multi-objective optimization method based on the results of prestressed modal analysis was proposed, which can achieve significant lightweight and cost-effectiveness improvement. Based on the principle and working characteristics of the steering device, the minimum value of mass, minimum value of maximum stress, maximum value of equivalent stiffness were set as optimization objectives. Through finite element analysis, the prestressed modal module was constructed, and the strength and modal characteristics of the steering device were obtained. In order to verify the accuracy of prestressed modal analysis, the vibration testing experimental platform was built in a non free state. The excitation and response signals can be obtained through sensors and data acquisition devices and used as input and output data. According to the comparative analysis of simulated vibration modes, it can be concluded that the coupling analysis of strength and mode is more in line with actual boundary conditions and has high reliability. The DOE (Design of Experience) method was adopted to construct discrete corresponding values between design variables and optimization objectives based on the results of prestressed modal analysis. In order to better evaluate the cost-effectiveness of lightweight, a comparative analysis was conducted on the results of primary and secondary lightweight. The results show that the prestressed modal analysis method can achieve good dynamic analysis accuracy. Without reducing strength and equivalent stiffness, the mass of the steering device can be reduced by 14 %, achieving high economic benefits.

Performance of high-concentration photovoltaic cells cooled by a hybrid microchannel heat sink

The electrical performance and equipment lifetime of high-concentration photovoltaic cells depends heavily on efficient cooling. In this paper, we applied a hybrid configuration to the cooling of a high-concentration photovoltaic cell, an innovative pattern derived from a comprehensive study on the combination of oblique microchannel and micro pin fin. Results from this study found that an elliptical pin fin pattern conforming with streamlines most effectively removed heat flux with a Nusselt number of 65.44 at a Reynolds number 1250. Then, the performance evaluation of a photovoltaic cell with a concentration ratio of 1000 was carried out on the hottest day of each season in Shiraz under actual boundary conditions. With an average flow rate of 30 ml/min in the spring, the implementation of this hybrid design resulted in the photovoltaic cell achieving an electrical efficiency of 40.16 while still maintaining a constant surface temperature of 301 K. Unlike a straight microchannel, which failed to maintain a constant cell temperature throughout summer’s hottest hours, this hybrid configuration succeeded in sustaining cooling with an average flow rate of 90 ml/min. In the winter and autumn, the pump’s average power consumption required for cooling was about 25 and 38 mW, respectively. Moreover, the maximum output electrical power in the summer was 2.8 W, with pumping power contributing to 1500 mW.

Thermodynamic analysis of Powell-Eyring-blood hybrid nanofluid through vertical stretching sheet with interface slip and melting heat

The present endeavor investigates the significance of entropy production due to stagnation point flow of hybrid nanofluid through a vertical stretchable surface. The system irreversibility arises due to fluctuation of temperature between mainstream and interface. At the surface of the sheet, the effects of slippage and melting are considered. The buoyancy-obsessed flow of hybrid mixture is exposed to Lorentz forces and thermal radiation. The mixture is created with the infusion of Iron and magnesium nanoparticles in Powell-Eyring fluid, which reassemble the blood features. The principal conservation equations (momentum and energy) are modified with the deployment of Tiwari-Das model. The resulting blood mixture demonstrates the features of shear thinning fluids. The prevailing boundary layer equations are turned into a system of ordinary differential equations by applying certain modifications, which are solved numerically by a Keller-Box approach for actual boundary conditions. Among the most intriguing results is that the volumetric loading of iron nanoparticles, melting phenomena, and slip provide a substantial thermal improvements. The flow of blood detract with escalation of melting and slippage at the boundaries. The effects of buoyancy assistance escalates the blood flow. Enlargement in viscosity parameter reduces the fluid viscosity and reduces the fluid drift. The effects of viscoelastic parameter are conflicting for velocity and temperature. The thermal profile escalates with increase in magnetic parameter. The production of entropy increases with enhanced Lorentz and buoyancy forces while diminished with slip and melting effects. The consequences of Bejan against theses parameters are conflicting. The frictional coefficient detract with high melting effects, while the results for energy transport coefficient are contrary. The influence of Iron are significant because of denser density.

Stability of Steel Columns with Concrete-Filled Thin-Walled Rectangular Profiles

This paper provides a numerical and experimental analysis of global stability of axially compressed columns made of thin-walled rectangular concrete-filled steel tubes (CFSTs), with the consideration of initial geometric imperfections. The presented work introduces the theory of stability and strength of composite structural members subjected to axial compressive force. Moreover, a numerical calculation method for the determination of column resistance under axial load is presented, taking into account the influence of second-order effects that are considered in the European standard for the design of such members. This paper also presents the method of creating 3D models using the ABAQUS software, numerical analysis, and comparison of the obtained numerical results with experimental tests. In addition to the actual boundary and load conditions, the real properties of the used materials were also taken into account during the creation of 3D models. The actual properties of the used materials were obtained experimentally. Based on the obtained results and their comparison, several new findings and proven facts about the design and assessment of axially compressed columns made of thin-walled rectangular steel tubes filled with concrete are presented in the conclusions of the paper.

A compatible boundary condition-based topology optimization paradigm for static mechanical cloak design

We propose a novel compatible boundary condition-based topology optimization formulation for realizing static mechanical cloaking of linear elastic structures. The key idea is to make the actual boundary conditions along the exterior of the cloaking region consistent with the reference boundary conditions, including the displacement and the nodal force, by designing the cloak structure solely. This compatible boundary condition-based optimization paradigm is not only applicable to various shaped voids (e.g., circle, ellipse, star, Mickey, square, “DUT” logo) and diverse loading conditions (e.g., pressure-sliding, biaxial-stretching, linear-stretching, random-stretching, stretching-sliding) but also demonstrates insensitivity to element quantities and slight variations of external load, ensuring consistent and robust elastostatic cloaking performance. Additionally, adopting the Moving Morphable Voids (MMV) method guarantees the optimized structures have the merits of explicit geometric boundaries and easy fabrication. Numerical examples and experimental validation demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach. The present approach can be easily extended for cloak design in three dimensions and multiphysics.

Coral reef applications of Landsat-8: geomorphic zonation and benthic habitat mapping of Xisha Islands, China

ABSTRACT Being one of the most significant and valuable coral reef systems in the South China Sea, the Xisha Islands has undergone rapid transformation due to increasing stressors from human impacts and climate change in recent years. However, as indispensable information for coral reef monitoring and management, the detailed reef extent, geomorphic zonation, or benthic composition of the Xisha Islands is not well documented. Considering limited access to the Xisha Islands, the rapid development of optical remote sensing technology provides us with a feasible mean for coral reef observation. This study adopted a water depth substitution index – probabilistic inundation (PI) – combined with depth-invariant index (DII) to achieve reef extent exploration, geomorphologic and benthic habitat types classification with unsupervised classification algorithms based on Landsat-8 time-series satellite data. Compared with two open-access datasets, the extent of each independent reef extracted from PI exhibited higher similarity with the actual boundary conditions displayed in RGB (Red-Green-Blue) composite images from Landsat-8. Based on PI and derived slope, we obtained geomorphic zonation classification results, and similarly benthic compositions were retrieved based on PI, DII, and reflectance. The overall accuracy of geomorphic zonation and benthic habitat classification results were 72% and 86%, respectively. We also interestingly discovered that corals of the Xisha Islands may be capable of an ability to resist chronic heat stress as a growth trend of reef area after two successive stress events in 2014–2015 were observed at most reefs. The proposed mapping framework of this study provides a repeatable and flexible scheme in depicting the comprehensive situation of coral reefs at Xisha Islands based only on publicly available remote sensing data without complicated pre-set parameters, which could be easily extended to coral reef research around the world. Simultaneously, the findings also provide requisite information supporting the sustainable management and conservation of coral reef ecosystems in the Xisha Islands.

Influences of seasonal changes of the ground temperature on the performance of ground heat exchangers embedded in diaphragm walls: A cold climate case from North China

Compared with ground heat exchangers (GHEs) in typical vertical boreholes with depth of 100–120 m, GHEs embedded in the diaphragm wall of buildings are more easily affected by periodic changes of the shallow ground temperature. Here we numerically solve the heat transfer model of the diaphragm wall with GHEs considering actual ground temperature boundary conditions in cold climate region, North China, and investigate the influences of seasonal variations of the ground temperature on heat transfer performance of GHEs. Results show that due to the above seasonal effect, the heat exchange performance of GHEs may decrease to different extent especially in relatively shallow diaphragm walls, thereby causing non-negligible design deviations. Under the present geometric and climate conditions, as the depth of GHEs increases, the maximum thermal influence distance from the diaphragm wall tends to increase during the cooling season and decrease during the heating season, respectively. The optimal spacing between GHE groups ranges from 0.5 to 0.9 m, and though a high construction cost, a smaller spacing is more favorable for improving the overall energy efficiency. The present work is expected to provide useful references for optimal design and performance prediction of GHEs embedded in diaphragm walls with similar climate conditions.

Field Test Verification and Consolidation Model of a Sand-Doped Soft Soil Foundation with Vacuum Pressure

In this study, a field test on the consolidation of sand-doped improved soft soil under surcharge-vacuum preloading is carried out. By analyzing the vacuum pressure transmission efficiency, the settlement rate, and the dissipation rule of excess pore-water pressure of sand-doped and original soft soil foundation in the consolidation process and comparing the indices of vane shear strength, water content, and void ratio before and after consolidation, the technical superiority and reinforcement effect of the sand mixing method for improving soft soil are comprehensively evaluated. Considering the fact that the vacuum pressure decreases linearly along the depth and the surcharge preloading is applied linearly, an assumption of equal volumetric strain is introduced to reflect the lateral deformation, and an axisymmetric nonlinear radial consolidation model of sand-doped soft soil is established. The model accuracy is verified by model degradation research and a field test. The results show that the sand-doped method (20% sand content) can improve the transmission efficiency of vacuum pressure, reduce the loss of vacuum pressure along the prefabricated vertical drains, accelerate the dissipation rate of excess pore-water pressure, increase the final settlement and shear strength, reduce the final void ratio and water content, and improve the reinforcement effect of deep soil. A nonlinear consolidation solution of the sand-doped soil with linear surcharge preloading considering the actual negative boundary conditions can reflect the consolidation behavior more accurately. If lateral deformation and linear surcharge preloading are not considered, the consolidation rate of soil will be overestimated.

Hybrid simulation of a steel dual system with buckling‐induced first‐story column shortening: A mixed control mode approach

AbstractThis paper presents a hybrid simulation (HS) with a proposed substructuring technique that captures the effect of first‐story column local buckling and axial shortening on the frame behavior. The HS is applied to examine the seismic response of a two‐dimensional seven‐story, two‐bay steel dual system. The experimental substructure consists of a full‐scale interior column and beam cruciform subassemblage, including a moderately ductile first‐story built‐up box column and two I‐shaped beams. Under combined axial and lateral loads, local buckling can occur near the column base, resulting in column shortening. The specimen is loaded through a four‐degree‐of‐freedom (DOF) mixed‐mode control (three displacement‐ and one force‐control) actuation system that simplifies the actual complex boundary conditions of the frame structure. To account for column shortening in the HS, a new approach consisting of a set of fictitious equivalent forces applied to columns in the numerical model to achieve compatible displacements with the experiment is implemented. Shortening of the two exterior columns in the model is simulated through finite element analysis using the computer program ABAQUS in an attempt to capture the redistribution of axial loads with column shortening. The test results confirm that the proposed modeling and control methods successfully integrate the experimental substructure and ABAQUS simulation into the HS, resulting in a more realistic frame response that captures the effect of column shortening in the analysis. The moderately ductile built‐up box column is verified to perform well in near‐fault earthquake loadings.

Monitoring structural scale composite specimens in a post‐buckling regime: The integrated finite element stereo digital image correlation approach with geometrically non‐linear regularization

AbstractEven though the simulations used to describe the failure of laminates are becoming more and more predictive, complex testing under multiaxial loadings is still required to validate the design of structural parts in a wide range of industrial domains. It is thus essential to assess the actual boundary conditions to allow for an objective comparison between testing and calculations, in particular since the structural tests are complex and often leads to buckling. Therefore, accurate estimation of force and moment fluxes applied to the specimen is critical. In this context, stereo digital image correlation (SDIC) has proven to be an important measurement tool and provides very well‐resolved surface displacement fields, but the exploitation of such measurements to calculate fluxes remains problematic when testing composites. The first objective of this study is both to reduce the uncertainty associated with fluxes determination on a complex test and to simplify the extraction process with respect to existing procedures. The second objective is to make this methodology robust to geometrically non‐linear deformations. In this paper, we propose a new methodology that extracts minimal boundary conditions in the form of 3D mechanically admissible displacements fields. The approach developed uses a finite element SDIC (FE‐SDIC) method regularized by means of mechanical behaviour admissibility equations. Results show that the new methodology outputs much more accurate fluxes than classical data generated from multiple differentiations of the displacement fields. Excellent noise robustness is obtained and quantified. Numerical predictions have been satisfactorily compared with experimental data from one structural‐scale composite specimen under complex testing.

Experimental investigation of microscale mechanisms during compressive loading of paperboard

Compression of paperboard is a common procedure during industrial package forming and better knowledge of the material response is needed to avoid defective packages and waste. To go beyond current modelling approaches, experimental identification of mechanisms underlying the macroscopic stress–strain responses is needed. In this study, in-situ uniaxial compression of paperboard is studied through synchrotron tomography at high spatiotemporal resolutions. Both the microstructural evolution of the fibre network and the actual boundary conditions of the loading were quantified and analysed. At the microscale, the loading equipment plates were not perfectly flat resulting in an increasing sample-equipment contact area with loading. This is, however, shown to only have a small effect on the form of the macroscopic stress–strain curves. The evolution of 3D strain fields showed that strain accumulated close to the sample surfaces in the early part of the compression process, whereafter the main deformation zone shifted to the out-of-plane centre. Both fibre walls and pore volumes were observed to decrease during loading (and recover partly after unloading). Regarding the pore volume, the main reduction mechanism was seen to be closure of layers between fibres. Even if the total pore volume reduction was seen to be the dominant deformation mechanism in a second stage of compression, the volumetric change of fibre walls was non-negligible. Fibre wall compression is not commonly considered in theoretical treatments of paperboard compression, but this work suggests that the stored elastic energy could be a driver for the elastic recovery of the fibre network during unloading.

Numerical investigation on combustion regulation for a stoichiometric heavy-duty natural gas engine with hydrogen addition considering knock limitation

Aiming to further improve the thermal efficiency and reduce NOx emissions in the stoichiometric hydrogen-enriched natural gas (NG) engine, a detailed 3-D simulation model of stoichiometric operation heavy-duty NG engine is built based on the actual boundary conditions from high load bench test. The superimposed methods for knock regulation, combustion and emission control, including Miller valve timing, hydrogen volume fraction and EGR rate were proposed and investigated comprehensively. It reveals that the typically bimodal characteristic of heat release rate (HRR) curve is caused by knock, which seriously restricts the performance improvement of stoichiometric NG engine under high load condition. To predict and control the occurrence of the second peak of HHR accurately, a new parameter BI is defined. Moreover, the Miller timing with 20°CA of the intake valve late closing shows better combustion performance within the knock limit, accompanied by a slight increase in NOx emissions. Additionally, the 5% hydrogen blend, coupled with the Miller cycle, can further enhance the indicated thermal efficiency (ITE) of the NG engine due to the stronger effects on acceleration of laminar flame propagation velocity than the promotion of end-gas auto-ignition. Besides, the great potential of EGR rate for balancing NOx and ITE is also confirmed in the heavy-duty hydrogen-enriched NG engine adopting Miller cycle. Compared to the original indexes, combing with the regulation strategies of intake valve late closing (20°CA), hydrogen addition (5%) and EGR (17%) are proved to increase the indicated thermal efficiency by 1.89% and reduce NOx emissions by 11.47% within the knock limit.

Analysis on the Effects of Different Receiver Structures and Porous Parameters on the Volumetric Effects and Heat Transfer Performance of Porous Volumetric Solar Receiver

The volumetric solar receiver is an important heat transfer component of the concentrated solar power (CSP) system. Moreover, in order to improve the absorption of concentrated solar radiation, the porous media are widely used in volumetric solar receiver. In recent years, many studies were concerned with the effects of porosity, pore number density and size, Reynolds number, and Darcy number on heat and flow performance in volumetric solar receiver. However, there are few studies on the effects of structure type and geometric parameters on the volumetric effects and the radiation characteristics of a porous volumetric solar receiver with nonuniform heat flux boundary condition. In this contribution, in order to analyze the effects of structures on the volumetric effects and heat transfer performance, we design six types of porous volumetric receiver structures, whereas the volume of different structures keeps consistent. Then, we apply the local non-thermal-equilibrium model and also consider the effect of structure shape on the concentrating solar radiation transport characteristic. Furthermore, we apply the Gaussian distribution model (GDM) to simulate the actual nonuniform heat flux boundary condition. The result shows that drum-type structure (RT-III) has the best heat transfer performance among the six structures; e.g., the outlet average temperature of fluid is up to 851 K when the pore size and porosity of porous media are 2 mm and 0.7, respectively, which is 41 K increased than the scaled cone-type structure. In addition, the pore diameter has less influence on the outlet temperature of fluid, but it has greater influence on the pressure drop. The contribution can provide a reference for this type of solar receiver design and reconstruction.

Effects of inlet flow non-uniformities on thermochemical structures and quasi-one-dimensional simulation of sooting counterflow diffusion flames

Counterflow flames are routinely used for investigating fundamental flame and fuel properties such as laminar flame speeds, autoignition temperature, extinction strain rate, and chemistries of soot formation. The primary merit of counterflow flame is that the essentially two-dimensional configuration can be mathematically treated as a one-dimensional problem with certain assumptions made; this dimensional reduction is much beneficial for computational costs, which are critical for the investigation of complex chemistries such as those of soot formation. In this work, we performed a comprehensive investigation on the performance of the 1D modeling by comparing the results with experimental measurements and the more rigorous 2D models. We focused on the effects of inlet flow uniformities, which are frequencies assumed in the 1D model but challenging to realize in experiments. Parametric studies on the effects of nozzle flow rates, nozzle separation distances, and curtain flow rates on inlet flow uniformities and the 1D modeling were performed. The results demonstrated the importance to specify actual velocity boundary conditions, either obtained from experiments or from two-dimensional modeling to the 1D model. An additional novel contribution of this work is a quantitative presentation of the fact that the presence of the curtain flow would exert a notable influence on the core counterflow by modifying the radial distribution of the nozzle exit velocity although the effects can be accounted for by using the correct velocity boundaries in the quasi-1D model. This work provides recommendation for various geometry and operational parameters of the counterflow flame to facilitate researchers to select proper burner configuration and flow conditions that are amiable for accurate 1D modeling.

Bending Performance of Concrete Sandwich Walls with Actual Boundary Conditions

Concrete sandwich walls are commonly used as the exterior wall panels of a structure, in which the wall suffers out-of-plane bending under strong wind conditions. This paper aims to investigate the bending performance of concrete sandwich walls under actual boundary conditions through experimental and analytical methods. In total, four concrete sandwich walls were tested to detect the influence of openings and loading direction. Typical failure patterns were characterized and discussed. The load-displacement curves of four test specimens were analyzed. It was indicated that the bearing capacity of the walls under negative bending conditions was higher than that under positive bending conditions, owing to the additional constraints provided by the steel beams. Strain distributions of wall specimens were also discussed in order to obtain the composite action of the sandwich walls between the upper and lower layers of concrete. In addition, the finite element model (FEM) was developed by ABAQUS to provide insights into the bending performance of the sandwich walls. Through comparison with the test results, the FEM was verified with a good level of accuracy. Subsequently, the degree of composite action of the sandwich walls was assessed in terms of both the moment of inertia and bearing capacity. From the experimental and numerical results, it demonstrated that the bearing capacity of concrete sandwiched wall under negative direction was higher than that under positive direction owing to the constraints of steel beam. The derived composite action degree could be employed to evaluate the out-plane bending stiffness and strength of sandwiched concrete wall. Both the experimental and analytical results in this paper are beneficial for the design of sandwich walls under bending conditions.