Activity Recovery Coefficients Research Articles

Effect of OSEM Reconstruction Iteration Number and Monte Carlo Collimator Modeling on 166Ho Activity Quantification in SPECT/CT

Background: Accurate reconstruction and quantification in the post-therapy SPECT/CT imaging of 166Ho microspheres for hepatic malignancies is crucial for treatment evaluation. This present study aimed to explore the impact of the OSEM reconstruction parameters on SPECT/CT image features for dose distribution determination, using Hybrid Recon™ (Hermes Medical Solutions AB) and full Monte Carlo (MC) collimator modeling. Methods: Image quality and activity quantification were assessed through two acquisitions of the Jaszczak phantom using a Siemens Symbia Intevo Bold SPECT/CT system. The datasets were reconstructed using the OSEM method, with variations in the number of iterations for 15 and 8 subsets, both with and without full MC collimator modeling. Contrast recovery coefficient (QH), coefficient of variation (CV), contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR), calibration factor (CF), and activity recovery coefficient (ARC) were calculated and used to evaluate image quality and activity quantification. Results: Reconstructions with 5 iterations and 15 subsets, as well as 10 iterations and 8 subsets, were selected as the most suitable for 166Ho imaging, as they provided higher QH and ARCs. Incorporating full MC collimator modeling in both reconstructions led to significant improvements in image quality and activity recovery. The CFs remained consistent for a fixed value of 15 and 8 subsets, with values of (14.9 ± 0.5) cps/MBq and (14.6 ± 0.5) cps/MBq, respectively. However, when applying full collimator modeling, the CF values decreased to a range between 10.9 and 12.1 cps/MBq. Conclusions: For 166Ho SPECT/CT imaging, OSEM (with either 5 iterations and 15 subsets or 10 iterations and 8 subsets) combined with full MC collimator modeling yielded superior image quality and quantification results.

Detection and correction of translational motion in SPECT with exponential data consistency conditions.

Rigid patient motion can cause artifacts in single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) images, compromising the diagnosis and treatment planning. Exponential data consistency conditions (eDCCs) are mathematical equations describing the redundancy of exponential SPECT measurements. It has been recently shown that eDCCs can be used to detect patient motion in SPECT projections.
 This study aimed at developing a fully data-driven method based on eDCCs to estimate and correct for translational motion in SPECT.
 If all activity is encompassed inside a convex region K of constant attenuation, eDCCs can be derived from SPECT projections and can be used to verify the pair-wise consistency of these projections. Our method assumes a single patient translation between two detector gantry positions. The proposed method estimates both the three-dimensional shift and the motion index, i.e. the index of the first gantry position after motion occurred. The estimation minimizes the eDCCs between the subset of projections before the motion index and the subset of motion-corrected projections after the motion index. We evaluated the proposed method using Monte Carlo simulated and experimental data of a NEMA IEC phantom and simulated projections of a liver patient. The method's robustness was assessed by applying various motion vectors and motion indices.
 Motion detection and correction with eDCCs were sensitive to movements above 3~mm.
The accuracy of the estimation was below the 2.39~mm pixel spacing with good precision in all studied cases. The proposed method led to a significant improvement in the quality of reconstructed SPECT images. The activity recovery coefficient relative to the SPECT image without motion was above 90\% on average over the six spheres of the NEMA IEC phantom and 97\% for the liver patient. For example, for a (2,2,2)~cm translation in the middle of the liver acquisition, the activity recovery coefficient was improved from 35\% (non-corrected projections) to 99\% (motion-corrected projections).
The study proposed and demonstrated the good performance of translational motion detection and correction with eDCCs in SPECT acquisition data.

Subtraction of single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) in radioembolization: a comparison of four methods

BackgroundSubtraction of single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) images has a number of clinical applications in e.g. foci localization in ictal/inter-ictal SPECT and defect detection in rest/stress cardiac SPECT. In this work, we investigated the technical performance of SPECT subtraction for the purpose of quantifying the effect of a vasoconstricting drug (angiotensin-II, or AT2) on the Tc-99m-MAA liver distribution in hepatic radioembolization using an innovative interventional hybrid C-arm scanner. Given that subtraction of SPECT images is challenging due to high noise levels and poor resolution, we compared four methods to obtain a difference image in terms of image quality and quantitative accuracy. These methods included (i) image subtraction: subtraction of independently reconstructed SPECT images, (ii) projection subtraction: reconstruction of a SPECT image from subtracted projections, (iii) projection addition: reconstruction by addition of projections as a background term during the iterative reconstruction, and (iv) image addition: simultaneous reconstruction of the difference image and the subtracted image.ResultsDigital simulations (XCAT) and phantom studies (NEMA-IQ and anthropomorphic torso) showed that all four methods were able to generate difference images but their performance on specific metrics varied substantially. Image subtraction had the best quantitative performance (activity recovery coefficient) but had the worst visual quality (contrast-to-noise ratio) due to high noise levels. Projection subtraction showed a slightly better visual quality than image subtraction, but also a slightly worse quantitative accuracy. Projection addition had a substantial bias in its quantitative accuracy which increased with less counts in the projections. Image addition resulted in the best visual image quality but had a quantitative bias when the two images to subtract contained opposing features.ConclusionAll four investigated methods of SPECT subtraction demonstrated the capacity to generate a feasible difference image from two SPECT images. Image subtraction is recommended when the user is only interested in quantitative values, whereas image addition is recommended when the user requires the best visual image quality. Since quantitative accuracy is most important for the dosimetric investigation of AT2 in radioembolization, we recommend using the image subtraction method for this purpose.

Imaging of polychromatic sources through Compton spectral reconstruction

Objective. Study the performance of a spectral reconstruction method for Compton imaging of polychromatic sources and compare it to standard Compton reconstruction based on the selection of photopeak events. Approach. The proposed spectral and the standard photopeak reconstruction methods are used to reconstruct images from simulated sources emitting simultaneously photons of 140, 245, 364 and 511 keV. Data are simulated with perfect and realistic energy resolutions and including Doppler broadening. We compare photopeak and spectral reconstructed images both qualitatively and quantitatively by means of activity recovery coefficient and spatial resolution. Main results. The presented method allows improving the images of polychromatic sources with respect to standard reconstruction methods. The main reasons for this improvement are the increase of available statistics and the reduction of contamination from higher initial photon energies. The reconstructed images present lower noise, higher activity recovery coefficient and better spatial resolution. The improvements become more sensible as the energy resolution of the detectors decreases. Significance. Compton cameras have been studied for their capability of imaging polychromatic sources, thus allowing simultaneous imaging of multiple radiotracers. In such scenarios, Compton images are conventionally reconstructed for each emission energy independently, selecting only those measured events depositing a total energy within a fixed window around the known emission lines. We propose to employ a spectral image reconstruction method for polychromatic sources, which allows increasing the available statistics by using the information from events with partial energy deposition. The detector energy resolution influences the energy window used to select photopeak events and therefore the level of contamination by higher energies. The spectral method is expected to have a more important impact as the detector resolution worsens. In this paper we focus on energy ranges from nuclear medical imaging and we consider realistic energy resolutions.

Assessment of mouse-specific pharmacokinetics in kidneys based on 131I activity measurements using micro-SPECT

BackgroundIn order to acquire accurate drug pharmacokinetic information, which is required for tissue dosimetry, micro-SPECT must be quantitative to allow for an accurate assessment of radioligand activity in the relevant tissue. This study investigates the feasibility of deriving accurate mouse-specific time-integrated drug pharmacokinetic data in mouse kidneys from activity measurements using micro-SPECT.MethodsAn animal experiment was carried out to evaluate the accuracy of 131I activity quantification in mouse kidneys (mean tissue volume of 0.140 mL) using a micro-SPECT system against conventional ex vivo gamma counting (GC) in a NaI(Tl) detector. The imaging setting investigated was that of the mouse biodistribution of a 131I-labelled single-domain antibody fragment (sdAb), currently being investigated for targeted radionuclide therapy of HER2-expressing cancer. SPECT imaging of 131I 365-keV photons was done with a VECTor/CT system (MILabs, Netherlands) using a high-energy mouse collimator with 1.6-mm-diameter pinholes. For both activity quantification techniques, the pharmacokinetic profile of the radioligand from approximately 1–73 h p.i. was derived and the time-integrated activity coefficient per gram of tissue (ã/M) was estimated. Additionally, SPECT activity recovery coefficients were determined in a phantom setting.ResultsSPECT activities underestimate the reference activities by an amount that is dependent on the 131I activity concentration in the kidney, and thus on the time point of the pharmacokinetic profile. This underestimation is around − 12% at 1.5 h (2.89 MBq mL−1 mean reference activity concentration), − 13% at 6.6 h (149 kBq mL−1), − 40% at 24 h (17.6 kBq mL−1) and − 46% at 73 h (5.2 kBq mL−1) p.i. The ã/M value estimated from SPECT activities is, nevertheless, within − 14% from the reference (GC) ã/M value. Furthermore, better quantitative accuracy (within 2% from GC) in the SPECT ã/M value is achieved when SPECT activities are compensated for partial recovery with a phantom-based recovery coefficient of 0.85.ConclusionThe SPECT imaging system used, together with a robust activity quantification methodology, allows an accurate estimation of time-integrated pharmacokinetic information of the 131I-labelled sdAb in mouse kidneys. This opens the possibility to perform mouse-specific kidney-tissue dosimetry based on pharmacokinetic data acquired in vivo on the same mice used in nephrotoxicity studies.

336. Validation of a methodology for SPECT/CT absolute quantification

Purpose To evaluate the activity quantification performance of our SPECT/CT scanner (SYMBIA T2 – SIEMENS) and to verify a methodology for absolute activity quantification. Methods Quantitative SPECT/CT studies can be performed using the methodology proposed by Zeintl et al. [1] . The instrumentation consists of an uniform cylindrical phantom (5680 mL) and an IEC NEMA torso-phantom with hot sphere inserts. 99mTc was used to prepare the radioactive solutions. Different sphere-to-background ratio (RSB) were used (61:1, 44:1, 33:1, 10:1). Images were reconstructed using the proprietary OSEM 3D algorithm with resolution recovery (FLASH 3D, Siemens Healthcare), CT-based attenuation correction and energy window-based scatter correction. A system calibration factor (S) relating the count rate (cps) and the activity (mCi) contained in a tridimensional volume was determined together with the activity recovery coefficients. The phantom results were extended to 99mTc-MAA patient acquisitions for activity quantification in liver lesions. Lesions contouring was performed using the Volumetric Analysis Software (Siemens Healthcare). Results A calibration factor of 17190 cps/mCi was obtained for 99mTc. Recovery coefficients (Fig. 1) vary from 90% (for volumes ⩾25 mL) to 20% (for volumes up to 0.5 mL). For 128 updates and no post-smoothing filtering we obtain the maximum activity recovery (about 90%) for a volume ⩾25 mL. Hot sphere contrast and activity quantification improve with higher updates while the sphere to background ratio and the background variability increase. A balance between activity recovery and background variability is obtained with 8 iterations, 8subset and no filtering. Applying the phantom results to 7 MAA-99mTc acquisitions, activity accumulated in liver lesions can be determined with an accuracy ⩽10% (Table 1). Conclusions With the proposed methodology spect activity quantification can be reached with an accuracy ⩽10% for 99mTc acquisitions. In the future the method will be tested also with other isotopes used in the clinical practice.

Fast technetium-99m liver SPECT for evaluation of the pretreatment procedure for radioembolization dosimetry.

PurposeThe efficiency of radioembolization procedures could be greatly enhanced if results of the 99mTc‐MAA pretreatment procedure were immediately available in the interventional suite, enabling 1‐day procedures as a result of direct estimation of the hepatic radiation dose and lung shunt fraction. This would, however, require a relatively fast, but still quantitative, SPECT procedure, which might be achieved with acquisition protocols using nonuniform durations of the projection images.Methods SPECT liver images of the 150‐MBq 99mTc‐MAA pretreatment procedure were simulated for eight different lesion locations and two different lesion sizes using the digital XCAT phantom for both single‐ and dual‐head scanning geometries with respective total acquisition times of 1, 2, 5, 10, and 30 min. Three nonuniform projection‐time acquisition protocols (“half‐circle SPECT (HCS),” “nonuniform SPECT (NUS) I,” and “NUS II”) for fast quantitative SPECT of the liver were designed and compared with the standard uniform projection‐time protocol. Images were evaluated in terms of contrast‐to‐noise ratio (CNR), activity recovery coefficient (ARC), tumor/non‐tumor (T/N) activity concentration ratio, and lung shunt fraction (LSF) estimation. In addition, image quality was verified with a physical phantom experiment, reconstructed with both clinical and Monte Carlo‐based reconstruction software.ResultsSimulations showed no substantial change in image quality and dosimetry by usage of a nonuniform projection‐time acquisition protocol. Upon shortening acquisition times, CNR dropped, but ARC, T/N ratio, and LSF estimates were stable across all simulated acquisition times. Results of the physical phantom were in agreement with those of the simulations.ConclusionBoth uniform and nonuniform projection‐time acquisition liver SPECT protocols yield accurate dosimetric metrics for radioembolization treatment planning in the interventional suite within 10 min, without compromising image quality. Consequently, fast quantitative SPECT of the liver in the interventional suite is feasible.

SMART (SiMulAtion and ReconsTruction) PET: an efficient PET simulation-reconstruction tool

BackgroundPositron-emission tomography (PET) simulators are frequently used for development and performance evaluation of segmentation methods or quantitative uptake metrics. To date, most PET simulation tools are based on Monte Carlo simulations, which are computationally demanding. Other analytical simulation tools lack the implementation of time of flight (TOF) or resolution modelling (RM). In this study, a fast and easy-to-use PET simulation-reconstruction package, SiMulAtion and ReconsTruction (SMART)-PET, is developed and validated, which includes both TOF and RM. SMART-PET, its documentation and instructions to calibrate the tool to a specific PET/CT system are available on Zenodo.SMART-PET allows the fast generation of 3D PET images. As input, it requires one image representing the activity distribution and one representing the corresponding CT image/attenuation map. It allows the user to adjust different parameters, such as reconstruction settings (TOF/RM), noise level or scan duration. Furthermore, a random spatial shift can be included, representing patient repositioning. To evaluate the tool, simulated images were compared with real scan data of the NEMA NU 2 image quality phantom. The scan was acquired as a 60-min list-mode scan and reconstructed with and without TOF and/or RM. For every reconstruction setting, ten statistically equivalent images, representing 30, 60, 120 and 300 s scan duration, were generated. Simulated and real-scan data were compared regarding coefficient of variation in the phantom background and activity recovery coefficients (RCs) of the spheres. Furthermore, standard deviation images of each of the ten statistically equivalent images were compared.ResultsSMART-PET produces images comparable to actual phantom data. The image characteristics of simulated and real PET images varied in similar ways as function of reconstruction protocols and noise levels. The change in image noise with variation of simulated TOF settings followed the theoretically expected behaviour. RC as function of sphere size agreed within 0.3–11% between simulated and actual phantom data.ConclusionsSMART-PET allows for rapid and easy simulation of PET data. The user can change various acquisition and reconstruction settings (including RM and TOF) and noise levels. The images obtained show similar image characteristics as those seen in actual phantom data.

Hallmarks in prostate cancer imaging with Ga68-PSMA-11-PET/CT with reference to detection limits and quantitative properties

BackgroundGallium-68-labeled prostate-specific antigen positron emission tomography/computed tomography imaging (Ga68-PSMA-11-PET/CT) has emerged as a potential gold standard for prostate cancer (PCa) diagnosis. However, the imaging limitations of this technique at the early state of PCa recurrence/metastatic spread are still not well characterized. The aim of this study was to determine the quantitative properties and the fundamental imaging limits of Ga68-PSMA-11-PET/CT in localizing small PCa cell deposits.MethodsThe human PCa LNCaP cells (PSMA expressing) were grown and collected as single cell suspension or as 3D-spheroids at different cell numbers and incubated with Ga68-PSMA-11. Thereafter, human HCT116 cells (PSMA negative) were added to a total cell number of 2 × 105 cells per tube. The tubes were then pelleted and the supernatant aspirated. A whole-body PET/CT scanner with a clinical routine protocol was used for imaging the pellets inside of a cylindrical water phantom with increasing amounts of background activity. The actual activity bound to the cells was also measured in an automatic gamma counter. Imaging detection limits and activity recovery coefficients as a function of LNCaP cell number were obtained. The effect of Ga68-PSMA-11 mass concentration on cell binding was also investigated in samples of LnCaP cells incubated with increasing concentrations of radioligand.ResultsA total of 1 × 104 LNCaP cells mixed in a pellet of 2 × 105 cells were required to reach a 50% detection probability with Ga68-PSMA-11-PET/CT without background. With a background level of 1 kBq/ml, between 4 × 105 and 1 × 106 cells are required. The radioligand equilibrium dissociation constant was 27.05 nM, indicating high binding affinity. Hence, the specific activity of the radioligand has a profound effect on image quantification.ConclusionsGa68-PSMA-11-PET detects a small number of LNCaP cells even when they are mixed in a population of non-PSMA expressing cells and in the presence of background. The obtained image detection limits and characteristic quantification properties of Ga68-PSMA-11-PET/CT are essential hallmarks for the individualization of patient management. The use of the standardized uptake value for Ga68-PSMA-11-PET/CT image quantification should be precluded.

Utilizing High-Energy γ-Photons for High-Resolution 213Bi SPECT in Mice.

The combined α-, γ-, and x-ray emitter (213)Bi (half-life, 46 min) is promising for radionuclide therapy. SPECT imaging of (213)Bi is challenging, because most emitted photons have a much higher energy (440 keV) than common in SPECT. We assessed (213)Bi imaging capabilities of the Versatile Emission Computed Tomograph (VECTor) dedicated to (simultaneous) preclinical imaging of both SPECT and PET isotopes over a wide photon energy range of 25-600 keV. VECTor was equipped with a dedicated clustered pinhole collimator. Both the 79 keV x-rays and the 440 keV γ-rays emitted by (213)Bi could be imaged. Phantom experiments were performed to determine the maximum resolution, contrast-to-noise ratio, and activity recovery coefficient for different energy window settings. Additionally, imaging of [(213)Bi-DOTA,Tyr(3)]octreotate and (213)Bi-diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) in mouse models was performed. Using 440 keV γ-rays instead of 79 keV x-rays in image reconstruction strongly improved the resolution (0.75 mm) and contrast-to-noise characteristics. Results obtained with a single 440 keV energy window setting were close to those with a combined 79 keV/440 keV window. We found a reliable activity recovery coefficient down to 0.240 MBq/mL with 30-min imaging time. In a tumor-bearing mouse injected with 3 MBq of [(213)Bi-DOTA,Tyr(3)]octreotate, tumor uptake could be visualized with a 1-h postmortem scan. Imaging a nontumor mouse at 5-min frames after injection of 7.4 MBq of (213)Bi-DTPA showed renal uptake and urinary clearance, visualizing the renal excretion pathway from cortex to ureter. Quantification of the uptake data allowed kinetic modeling and estimation of the absorbed dose to the kidneys. It is feasible to image (213)Bi down to a 0.75-mm resolution using a SPECT system equipped with a dedicated collimator.

Quantitative Monte Carlo‐based holmium‐166 SPECT reconstruction

Quantitative imaging of the radionuclide distribution is of increasing interest for microsphere radioembolization (RE) of liver malignancies, to aid treatment planning and dosimetry. For this purpose, holmium-166 ((166)Ho) microspheres have been developed, which can be visualized with a gamma camera. The objective of this work is to develop and evaluate a new reconstruction method for quantitative (166)Ho SPECT, including Monte Carlo-based modeling of photon contributions from the full energy spectrum. A fast Monte Carlo (MC) simulator was developed for simulation of (166)Ho projection images and incorporated in a statistical reconstruction algorithm (SPECT-fMC). Photon scatter and attenuation for all photons sampled from the full (166)Ho energy spectrum were modeled during reconstruction by Monte Carlo simulations. The energy- and distance-dependent collimator-detector response was modeled using precalculated convolution kernels. Phantom experiments were performed to quantitatively evaluate image contrast, image noise, count errors, and activity recovery coefficients (ARCs) of SPECT-fMC in comparison with those of an energy window-based method for correction of down-scattered high-energy photons (SPECT-DSW) and a previously presented hybrid method that combines MC simulation of photopeak scatter with energy window-based estimation of down-scattered high-energy contributions (SPECT-ppMC+DSW). Additionally, the impact of SPECT-fMC on whole-body recovered activities (A(est)) and estimated radiation absorbed doses was evaluated using clinical SPECT data of six (166)Ho RE patients. At the same noise level, SPECT-fMC images showed substantially higher contrast than SPECT-DSW and SPECT-ppMC+DSW in spheres ≥ 17 mm in diameter. The count error was reduced from 29% (SPECT-DSW) and 25% (SPECT-ppMC+DSW) to 12% (SPECT-fMC). ARCs in five spherical volumes of 1.96-106.21 ml were improved from 32%-63% (SPECT-DSW) and 50%-80% (SPECT-ppMC+DSW) to 76%-103% (SPECT-fMC). Furthermore, SPECT-fMC recovered whole-body activities were most accurate (A(est) = 1.06 × A - 5.90 MBq, R(2) = 0.97) and SPECT-fMC tumor absorbed doses were significantly higher than with SPECT-DSW (p = 0.031) and SPECT-ppMC+DSW (p = 0.031). The quantitative accuracy of (166)Ho SPECT is improved by Monte Carlo-based modeling of the image degrading factors. Consequently, the proposed reconstruction method enables accurate estimation of the radiation absorbed dose in clinical practice.

Hydrolysis of Lactose from Cheese Whey Using a Reactor with β-Galactosidase Enzyme Immobilised on a Commercial UF Membrane

Abstract In this study, β-galactosidase enzyme from Kluyveromyces fragilis was immobilised on a commercial polyethersulfone membrane surface, 10 kDa cut-off. An integrated process, concerning the simultaneous hydrolysis-ultrafiltration of whey lactose was studied and working conditions have been fixed at 55°C and pH 6.9, the same conditions that are used for the industrial process of protein concentration. For the immobilisation, best results were obtained using 5% (v/v) of glutaraldehyde solution and 0.03 M galactose; the total activity recovery coefficient (TARC) was 44.2%. The amount of immobilised enzyme was 12.49 mg with a total activity of 86.3 LAU at 37°C, using 5% (w/v) lactose solution in phosphate buffer (100 mM pH 6.9). The stability of the immobilised enzyme was approximately 585 fold higher in comparison with the stability of free enzyme. Multipoint covalent immobilisation improves the stability of the enzyme, thereby enhancing the decision to use the membrane as a filtering element and support for the enzyme immobilisation.

A new respiratory gating device to improve 4D PET/CT

Purpose Respiratory motion creates artifacts in position emission tomography with computed tomography (PET/CT) images especially for lung tumors, and can alter diagnosis. To account for motion effects, respiratory gating techniques have been developed. However, the lack of measures strongly correlated with tumor motion limits their accuracy. The authors developed a real-time pneumotachograph device (SPI) allowing to sort PET and CT images depending on lung volumes. Methods The performance of this innovative respiratory tracking system was characterized and compared to a standard system. Our experimental setup consisted in a movable platform and a thorax phantom with six fillable spheres simulating lung tumors. The accuracy of SPI to detect inhalation peaks was also determined on volunteers. A comparison with the real-time position management (RPM) device, that relies on abdominal height measurement, was then investigated. Results Experiments showed a high accuracy of the measured signal compared to the input signal ( R = 0.88 to 0.99), and of the detection of the inhalation peaks (error of 0.1 ± 5.8 ms) necessary for prospective binning mode. Activity recovery coefficient was improved (until +39%) and the smearing effect was reduced (until 2.74 times lower) with SPI compared to ungated PET/CT acquisition. The spatial distribution of activity in spheres was similar for 4D PET gated with SPI and RPM. Significant improvement of the binning stability and matching between PET and CT were highlighted for irregular breathing patterns with SPI. Conclusions SPI is an innovative device that provides better binning performance than the current gating device on phantom experiments. Future works will focus on patients where the authors expect a significant improvement of specificity and sensitivity of PET/CT examinations.

A new respiratory gating device to improve 4D PET/CT

Respiratory motion creates artifacts in positon emission tomography with computed tomography (PET/CT) images especially for lung tumors, and can alter diagnosis. To account for motion effects, respiratory gating techniques have been developed. However, the lack of measures strongly correlated with tumor motion limits their accuracy. The authors developed a real-time pneumotachograph device (SPI) allowing to sort PET and CT images depending on lung volumes. The performance of this innovative respiratory tracking system was characterized and compared to a standard system. Our experimental setup consisted in a movable platform and a thorax phantom with six fillable spheres simulating lung tumors. The accuracy of SPI to detect inhalation peaks was also determined on volunteers. A comparison with the real-time position management (RPM) device, that relies on abdominal height measurement, was then investigated. Experiments showed a high accuracy of the measured signal compared to the input signal (R = 0.88 to 0.99), and of the detection of the inhalation peaks (error of 0.1 +/- 5.8 ms) necessary for prospective binning mode. Activity recovery coefficient was improved (until +39%) and the smearing effect was reduced (until 2.74 times lower) with SPI compared to ungated PET/CT acquisition. The spatial distribution of activity in spheres was similar for 4D PET gated with SPI and RPM. Significant improvement of the binning stability and matching between PET and CT were highlighted for irregular breathing patterns with SPI. SPI is an innovative device that provides better binning performance than the current gating device on phantom experiments. Future works will focus on patients where the authors expect a significant improvement of specificity and sensitivity of PET/CT examinations.

Comparison of Gallium-68 and Fluorine-18 imaging characteristics in positron emission tomography

This review article compares PET imaging performance with Gallium-68 (68Ga) and Fluorine-18 (18F). The literature on this topic is scarce; hence in order to complete the published data, Monte Carlo calculations, as well as phantom measurements, were carried out. The qualitative and quantitative differences between 68Ga and 18F imaging were evaluated in terms of spatial resolution, sensitivity, contrast and activity recovery coefficients for both human PET systems and small animal PET scanners. The clinical and pre-clinical implications of these differences are discussed.

Characterization and optimization of image quality as a function of reconstruction algorithms and parameter settings in a Siemens Inveon small-animal PET scanner using the NEMA NU 4-2008 standards

The image reconstruction algorithms provided with the Siemens Inveon small-animal PET scanner are filtered backprojection (FBP), 3-dimensional reprojection (3DRP), ordered subset expectation maximization in 2 or 3 dimensions (OSEM2D/3D) and maximum a posteriori (MAP) reconstruction. This study aimed at optimizing the reconstruction parameter settings with regard to image quality (IQ) as defined by the NEMA NU 4-2008 standards. The NEMA NU 4-2008 image quality phantom was used to determine image noise, expressed as percentage standard deviation in the uniform phantom region (%STD unif), activity recovery coefficients for the FDG-filled rods (RC rod), and spill-over ratios for the non-radioactive water- and air-filled phantom compartments (SOR wat and SOR air). Although not required by NEMA NU 4, we also determined a contrast-to-noise ratio for each rod (CNR rod), expressing the trade-off between activity recovery and image noise. For FBP and 3DRP the cut-off frequency of the applied filters, and for OSEM2D and OSEM3D, the number of iterations was varied. For MAP, the “smoothing parameter” β and the type of uniformity constraint (variance or resolution) were varied. Results of these analyses were demonstrated in images of an FDG-injected rat showing tumours in the liver, and of a mouse injected with an 18F-labeled peptide, showing a small subcutaneous tumour and the cortex structure of the kidneys. Optimum IQ in terms of CNR rod for the small-diameter rods was obtained using MAP with uniform variance and β=0.4. This setting led to RC rod,1 mm=0.21, RC rod,2 mm=0.57, %STD unif=1.38, SOR wat=0.0011, and SOR air=0.00086. However, the highest activity recovery for the smallest rods with still very small %STD unif was obtained using β=0.075, for which these IQ parameters were 0.31, 0.74, 2.67, 0.0041, and 0.0030, respectively. The different settings of reconstruction parameters were clearly reflected in the rat and mouse images as the trade-off between the recovery of small structures (blood vessels, small tumours, kidney cortex structure) and image noise in homogeneous body parts (healthy liver background). Highest IQ for the Inveon PET scanner was obtained using MAP reconstruction with uniform variance. The setting of β depended on the specific imaging goals.

Image-Quality Assessment for Several Positron Emitters Using the NEMA NU 4-2008 Standards in the Siemens Inveon Small-Animal PET Scanner

The positron emitters (18)F, (68)Ga, (124)I, and (89)Zr are all relevant in small-animal PET. Each of these radionuclides has different positron energies and ranges and a different fraction of single photons emitted. Average positron ranges larger than the intrinsic spatial resolution of the scanner (for (124)I and (68)Ga) will deteriorate the effective spatial resolution and activity recovery coefficient (RC) for small lesions or phantom structures. The presence of single photons (for (124)I and (89)Zr) could increase image noise and spillover ratios (SORs). Image noise, expressed as percentage SD in a uniform region (%SD), RC, and SOR (in air and water) were determined using the NEMA NU 4 small-animal image-quality phantom filled with 3.7 MBq of total activity of (18)F, (68)Ga, (124)I, or (89)Zr. Filtered backprojection (FBP), ordered-subset expectation maximization in 2 dimensions, and maximum a posteriori (MAP) reconstructions were compared. In addition to the NEMA NU 4 image-quality parameters, spatial resolutions were determined using small glass capillaries filled with these radionuclides in a water environment. The %SD for (18)F, (68)Ga, (124)I, and (89)Zr using FBP was 6.27, 6.40, 6.74, and 5.83, respectively. The respective RCs were 0.21, 0.11, 0.12, and 0.19 for the 1-mm-diameter rod and 0.97, 0.65, 0.64, and 0.88 for the 5-mm-diameter rod. SORs in air were 0.01, 0.03, 0.04, and 0.01, respectively, and in water 0.02, 0.10, 0.13, and 0.02. Other reconstruction algorithms gave similar differences between the radionuclides. MAP produced the highest RCs. For the glass capillaries using FBP, the full widths at half maximum for (18)F, (68)Ga, (124)I, and (89)Zr were 1.81, 2.46, 2.38, and 1.99 mm, respectively. The corresponding full widths at tenth maximum were 3.57, 6.52, 5.87, and 4.01 mm. With the intrinsic spatial resolution (approximately 1.5 mm) of this latest-generation small-animal PET scanner, the finite positron range has become the limiting factor for the overall spatial resolution and activity recovery in small structures imaged with (124)I and (68)Ga. The presence of single photons had only a limited effect on the image noise. MAP, as compared with the other reconstruction algorithms, increased RC and decreased %SD and SOR.

Determinação dos fatores de recuperação do 111In e do 99mTc na quantificação de atividade com imagens SPECT

OBJETIVO: Determinar, experimentalmente, os coeficientes de recuperação do 111In e do 99mTc usando imagens SPECT. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Quatro diferentes concentrações de 111In e de 99mTc foram usadas para quantificar a atividade em esferas de diferentes tamanhos. As imagens foram obtidas com um equipamento híbrido SPECT/CT, com dois detectores. A reconstrução das imagens foi realizada usando o método iterativo ordered subset expectation maximization (OSEM). A correção de atenuação foi realizada com o uso de um mapa de atenuação e a correção de espalhamento foi realizada usando a técnica das janelas de energia. RESULTADOS: Os resultados mostraram que o efeito do volume parcial foi observado de forma mais significativa para as esferas com volume < 6 ml. Para o 111In, os resultados mostram uma dependência com relação às concentrações usadas nas esferas e ao nível de background usado. Para o 99mTc, pôde-se observar uma tendência à subestimação dos resultados quando os níveis mais altos de background foram utilizados. CONCLUSÃO: É necessário usar os fatores de correção para compensar o efeito do volume parcial em objetos com volume < 6 ml para ambos os radionuclídeos. A subtração das contagens espúrias presentes nas imagens SPECT foi o fator que mais influenciou na quantificação da atividade nessas esferas.

I-131 SPECT activity recovery coefficients with implicit or triple-energy-window scatter correction

We define a total-activity recovery coefficient, TARC, as the activity within a volume of interest applied to a set of images from single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) divided by the true activity in that volume. Because of finite camera resolution, recovery-coefficient values are expected to be less than 1 for small objects. In this report, the TARC is measured as a function of volume, background activity and image-acquisition radius of rotation. A set of hollow spheres which vary in volume are filled with a solution of I-131 in water, and placed within a water-filled cylinder having an elliptical cross section. Tomographic-imaging measurements are carried out for two systems. The first utilizes an implicit scatter correction and the second triple-energy-window correction. Both systems employ a reconstructed-counts-to-activity conversion factor which varies with a measured background parameter and with the radius of rotation. Sphere and cylinder outlines are drawn on a CT scan and transferred to the SPECT scan via a 3-D image fusion. As expected, the inverse of the TARC increases as the sphere volume decreases. With implicit scatter correction, the TARC has no systematic dependence on either radius of rotation or background. With triple-energy-window scatter correction, there is an increase in 1/TARC when the radius of rotation is increased by 5 cm. This increase ranges from 9% to 25% depending on volume. For all conditions, 1/TARC is fit to a power-law equation as a function of sphere volume. The use of the resultant equations to correct a measured activity for a small volume is outlined. Accuracy of the present relationships for target shapes which are not spherical is not addressed.