Acrylic Elastomer Research Articles

Synthesis of poly ethyl acrylate interpenetrated poly methyl acrylate elastomer coating and its corrosion resistance properties

Herein, a flexible elastomer with great corrosion resistance property is synthesized by the polymerization of methyl acrylates (MA) and ethyl acrylate (EA), and the elastomer is successfully anchored on carbon steel surfaces. Being emerged in NaCl solution for 90 days, the coating did not peel off. Tensile tests proved the great mechanical properties of the elastomer, and the coating added tannic acid (TA) exhibited an excellent anti-corrosion performance, whose impedance magnitude reached 1 × 1010 Ω·cm2 in low frequency regions through EIS tests. Being emerged for 35 days, the impedance magnitude stays at 109 Ω·cm2. The interpenetrated elastomer can be cured within 2 h. It is a feasible way to prepare new functional coatings.

3D Printable, Biomimetic Adhesive, and Self-healing Acrylic Elastomers for Customized Attachable Strain Sensor

The advances in flexible electronics, soft robotics, and many other fields resulted in increased demands for high-performance self-healing elastomers (SHEs). In this work, novel SHEs were prepared by photo-initiated copolymerization of acrylic acid and alkyl acrylates. The as-obtained SHEs exhibited 100% autonomous self-healing efficiency at ambient temperature due to the formation of hydrogen bonding between the hydroxyl groups of acrylic acid unit and carbonyl groups of alkyl acrylate unit. The strong supramolecular interaction yielded SHEs with 3D printing capability, high stretchability, and remarkable adhesion properties. Meanwhile, biomimetic adhesion was developed by solvent-wetting method to enable convenient adherence of SHEs on various substrates. Furthermore, the introduction of carboxylic ionic liquid led to the formation of a nonleaking and attachable ionogel by 3D printing for strain sensing applications. The as-obtained strain sensor precisely detected various gestures of human fingers, and successfully recognized sign language through a comprehensive analysis of electronic signals. In sum, the high-performance SHEs look promising for future SHE-based intelligent products thanks to their common raw feedstocks, 3D printing capability, and multi-functional characteristics.

A critical evaluation of novel demulsifying agents based on acrylic terpolymers for Mexican heavy crude oils dehydration

• Random acrylic terpolymers as demulsifying agents for crude oil. • Trifunctional molecule with exceptional dehydrating and clarifying capacities. • Higher performance to dehydrate crude oils than commercial formulations. • Prediction of dehydrating efficiency as function of the crude oil properties. A novel kind of random acrylic terpolymers based on butyl acrylate (B), 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl acrylate (Ae), and 2-carboxyethyl acrylate (Ce) monomers was obtained by emulsion polymerization. Monomers’ weight ratios were varied, keeping in all cases a higher content of butyl acrylate (60, 70, 80, and 90 wt%) and controlling the number average molecular mass ( M ¯ n ) during polymerization. The random acrylic terpolymers were characterized by spectroscopic techniques; subsequently evaluated as demulsifier agents in three aged heavy crude oils of 7.55, 6.11, and 3.33 °API (apparent gravities), which form very stable water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions. The best performance for removing the emulsified water at 80 °C was obtained with terpolymers containing 90–80 wt% of the hydrophobic monomer B and small amounts of the hydrophilic monomers Ae and Ce (BAeCe-9551 and BAeCe-8111), being more efficient than two commercial demulsifiers (FDH-1 and F-46 TRETOLITE™). Moreover, the BAeCe-9551 terpolymer was evaluated in a fresh heavy crude oil of 20.2 °API at 60 °C — temperature of separation tanks —, showing better performance as breaker, coalescer, and clarifier than FDH-1. Finally, a quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR) analysis was carried out employing terpolymers’ molecular parameters and crude oils’ physicochemical parameters. Only one equation fulfilled all thresholds for Q F 1 2 , Q F 2 2 , Q F 3 2 , and r m 2 parameters, proving to be the most accurate to predict the water removal efficiency (WRE) of BAeCe-1 and BAeCe-2 series terpolymers when added to heavy crude oils. This correlation will allow selecting the best terpolymer for demulsifying a petroleum stream as a function of its physicochemical characteristics.

Material characterization of dielectric elastomers for soft actuators

Because the demand for soft actuators and soft robots is increasing in space engineering, medical care, and others, the research on dielectric elastomers has been active in recent years. In this study, to develop better performance dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs), viscoelastic and tensile properties of elastomers were measured using a dynamic viscoelasticity tester and a tabletop tensile tester. It was confirmed that the strain-removed film of commercially available acrylic elastomer has excellent viscoelastic and mechanical properties compared to commercially available materials. Furthermore, circular DEA was fabricated, and their electrodynamic properties and electric field response were evaluated. It was found that the material with the largest deformation as a circular DEA is acrylic DE with strain removed, and it is also superior in terms of both electric field strength and deformation.

Highly stretchable ionically crosslinked acrylate elastomers inspired by polyelectrolyte complexes.

Dynamic bonds are a powerful approach to tailor the mechanical properties of elastomers and introduce shape-memory, self-healing, and recyclability. Among the library of dynamic crosslinks, electrostatic interactions among oppositely charged ions have been shown to enable tough and resilient elastomers and hydrogels. In this work, we investigate the mechanical properties of ionically crosslinked ethyl acrylate-based elastomers assembled from oppositely charged copolymers. Using both infrared and Raman spectroscopy, we confirm that ionic interactions are established among polymer chains. We find that the glass transition temperature of the complex is in between the two individual copolymers, while the complex demonstrates higher stiffness and more recovery, indicating that ionic bonds can strengthen and enhance recovery of these elastomers. We compare cycles to increasing strain levels at different strain rates, and hypothesize that at fast strain rates ionic bonds dynamically break and reform while entanglements do not have time to slip, and at slow strain rates ionic interactions are disrupted and these entanglements slip significantly. Further, we show that a higher ionic to neutral monomer ratio can increase the stiffness, but its effect on recovery is minimal. Finally, taking advantage of the versatility of acrylates, ethyl acrylate is replaced with the more hydrophilic 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate, and the latter is shown to exhibit better recovery and self-healing at a cost of stiffness and strength. The design principles uncovered for these easy-to-manufacture polyelectrolyte complex-inspired bulk materials can be broadly applied to tailor elastomer stiffness, strength, inelastic recovery, and self-healing for various applications.

Controlling foamability of polypropylene/γ-irradiated ethylene acrylic elastomer blends by extent of crosslinking and domain microstructure of elastomer

Foams of polypropylene/elastomer blends can often lead to softer foams which may not be desirable every time. Incorporating rigidity to the foams can often be made possible by preferentially crosslinking the elastomer phase prior to blending. Although foamability of polypropylene/elastomer blends has been understood in the scientific community, the influence of the extent of crosslinking in the elastomer phase is not yet understood well. The purpose of this investigation is to identify the influence of the extent of elastomer crosslinking and the blend morphological attributes (achieved by varying screw speed during melt mixing) on foamability of polypropylene/partially crosslinked elastomer blends. Crosslinking of ethylene-acrylic elastomer is carried out using gamma radiation with several doses (0, 12.5, 25, 50 kGy) before melt blending and, subsequently, 10 wt.% of the irradiated elastomers (prior optimized) are mixed with polypropylene in a micro-compounder at three different screw speeds. The microstructure development in blends is characterized by scanning electron microscopy. Frequency sweep rheological analysis is done for selected blends to identify the ease of foamability among the series of blends. Foaming of blends is done with supercritical carbon dioxide in batch mode at three different temperatures. The density reduction along with the microcellular morphology development of blends with foaming is analyzed with the screw speed, the extent of crosslinking, and foaming temperature; furthermore, the individual input parameters (the elastomer domain size, controlled by the screw speed and the extent of crosslinking, controlled by gamma radiation dose) are optimized based on the foam morphology. A uniform and good foamability were achieved at 155 and 160°C for blends with elastomers, irradiated at 12.5 and 25 kGy radiation doses. The lowest density foam (0.37 g/cc) was obtained for polypropylene with 12.5 kGy irradiated crosslinked elastomer mixed at 200 rpm at 160°C foaming temperature. The final elastomer domain dispositions within the foam morphologies are characterized and the plausible foaming mechanism is proposed.

Machine learning assisted optimization of blending process of polyphenylene sulfide with elastomer using high speed twin screw extruder

Random forest regression was applied to optimize the melt-blending process of polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) with poly(ethylene-glycidyl methacrylate-methyl acrylate) (E-GMA-MA) elastomer to improve the Charpy impact strength. A training dataset was constructed using four elastomers with different GMA and MA contents by varying the elastomer content up to 20 wt% and the screw rotation speed of the extruder up to 5000 rpm at a fixed barrel temperature of 300 °C. Besides the controlled parameters, the following measured parameters were incorporated into the descriptors for the regression: motor torque, polymer pressure, and polymer temperatures monitored by infrared-ray thermometers installed at four positions (T1 to T4) as well as the melt viscosity and elastomer particle diameter of the product. The regression without prior knowledge revealed that the polymer temperature T1 just after the first kneading block is an important parameter next to the elastomer content. High impact strength required high elastomer content and T1 below 320 °C. The polymer temperature T1 was much higher than the barrel temperature and increased with the screw speed due to the heat of shear. The overheating caused thermal degradation, leading to a decrease in the melt viscosity and an increase in the particle diameter at high screw speed. We thus reduced the barrel temperature to keep T1 around 310 °C. This increased the impact strength from 58.6 kJ m−2 as the maximum in the training dataset to 65.3 and 69.0 kJ m−2 at elastomer contents of 20 and 30 wt%, respectively.

A DIY Fabrication Approach for Ultra-Thin Focus-Tunable Liquid Lens Using Electrohydrodynamic Pump

Demand for variable focus lens is increasing these days due to the rapid development of smart mobile devices and drones. However, conventional mechanical systems for lenses are generally complex, cumbersome, and rigid (e.g., for motors and gears). This research proposes a simple and compact liquid lens controlled by an electro hydro dynamics (EHD) pump. In our study, we propose a do-it-yourself (DIY) method to fabricate the low-cost EHD lens. The EHD lens consists of a polypropylene (PP) sheet for the exterior, a copper sheet for the electrodes, and an acrylic elastomer for the fluidic channel where dielectric fluid and pure water are filled. We controlled the lens magnification by changing the curvature of the liquid interface between the dielectric fluid and pure water. We evaluated the magnification performance of the lens. Moreover, we also established a numerical model to characterize the lens performance. We expect to contribute to the miniaturization of focus-tunable lenses.

Controllable bistable smart composite structures driven by liquid crystal elastomer

In this article, we proposed a new way to achieve monostable and bistable characteristics of composite layers based on liquid crystal elastomer (LCE). A smart trilayer composite structure is fabricated using LCE and acrylic elastomer, which can have several morphologies. It keeps flat at room temperature and can deform into a monostable saddle or bistable cylinder surface in response to simple temperature changes. The reversible deformation can be controlled through two parameters including geometrical size and actuation strain. The LCE can be programmed to generate different actuation strains by different formulas during synthesis or different mechanical stretches during UV radiation. The deformed morphology for different sample sizes and actuation strain is calculated using Finite element simulation. By comparison with the experimental results, we confirm that the phenomena can be captured through numerical simulations. Furthermore, to have a quantitative understanding, we use numerical simulation to calculate the deformation of the composite structure by tuning these two parameters and give a morphological portrait illustrating the relationship between the deformed shape and control parameters.

Enhanced dielectric properties of acrylic resin elastomer (AE)-based percolative composite with modified MXene

Excellent dielectric properties are essential for electromechanical applications of dielectric elastomer. This work confirms that acrylic resin elastomer (AE)-based percolative composites using MXene (Ti3C2Tx) nanosheets modified with PANI (referred to as PANI-Ti3C2Tx) as conductive fillers exhibit improved dielectric performances. Ti3C2Tx/AE and PANI-Ti3C2Tx/AE composites with different filler contents were prepared, and their percolation threshold are 6.01 vol% and 6.43 vol%, respectively. The dielectric constant of 6.39 vol% PANI-Ti3C2Tx/AE is 298 at 100 Hz, which 1.67 times that of 5.98 vol% Ti3C2Tx/AE composites (178), and is 85 times that of the pure AE matrix (3.5). Moreover, the dielectric loss of 6.39 vol% PANI-Ti3C2Tx/AE composite still maintains at a low level (0.29 at 100 Hz), which is lower than that of 5.98 vol% Ti3C2Tx/AE composite (0.55 at 100 Hz). We suppose that the improved dielectric constant of PANI-Ti3C2Tx/AE composites is attributed to the enhanced micro capacitors effect and Maxwell-Wagner-Sillars effect.

A highly stretchable optical strain sensor monitoring dynamically large strain for deformation-controllable soft actuator

In this paper, we report a highly stretchable optical strain sensor that can be compatible with artificial muscle and wearable human-assistive devices. The optical strain sensor is fabricated by embedding a polymeric optical fiber thermoformed for bi-tortuous structure in silicone elastomer. The strain sensor can detect uniaxial strain using amplitude of output light intensity that increases as curvature of the curved regions becomes enlarged with uniaxial strain. Due to the benefits from curvilinear design of the optical fiber and sensor structure with the elastomeric matrix securing geometric recovery from being elongated, the strain sensor is capable of reliable detection of arbitrary tensile strain in a wide range from 0% to 120%. It possesses fast, reversible, and durable strain-sensing performance with a small hysteresis even under continuative cyclic loadings of large strain. As integrated into a soft rolled-actuator based on acrylic elastomer, we finally demonstrate the strain-sensor performance is enough to monitor dynamic deformation response of the soft actuator.

Synergistic Effects of Thermal and Near-Infrared Radiation Heating on the Self-Healing Effect of Shape Memory Polyethylene Elastomer Nanocomposites

The preparation of commodity polymers that can undergo self-healing of scratched surfaces is still quite challenging without involving complicated synthetic processes and high cost of healing agents. In the research described here, we prepared a self-healing acrylic acid-functionalized metallocene polyethylene elastomer (mPE-g-AA) nanocomposite with the addition of arginine to form supramolecular hydrogen bonding. Thermal characterization, mechanical properties, shape memory effect, and self-healing properties were investigated. The addition of mutilwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) effectively increased the tensile properties of the modified mPE. The acrylic acid-modified mPE greatly improved its shape recovery ratio, up to 94.2 ± 4.7%, and maintained a high shape fixing ratio (91.6 ± 1.3%) due to the hydrogen bonding acting as physical crosslinks. Overall, all modified mPE samples showed good shape memory performance. Besides the conventional thermal heating to heal the scratched surface cracks, MWCNTs were incorporated to permit healing the surface cracks through near-infrared radiation (NIR). However, the MWCNTs-filled samples under the thermal healing process unexpectedly resulted in the crack widths increasing, perhaps due to the effect of the MWCNTs with high recovery stress pushing outward on both sides of the crack during heating. Interestingly, the synergistic approach of combining thermal healing and NIR was found to be the most effective in improving the healing efficiency of the mPE-g-AA-Arg/MWCNTs, close to 50% within a short time, in comparison with the existing literature with required healing times of 60 min to have a self-healing efficiency of 45% for mPE modified with maleic anhydride and 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no work has been reported on the preparation of self-healing thermoplastic elastomer nanocomposites through this approach so far.

Ultrahigh energy-dissipation elastomers by precisely tailoring the relaxation of confined polymer fluids

Energy-dissipation elastomers relying on their viscoelastic behavior of chain segments in the glass transition region can effectively suppress vibrations and noises in various fields, yet the operating frequency of those elastomers is difficult to control precisely and its range is narrow. Here, we report a synergistic strategy for constructing polymer-fluid-gels that provide controllable ultrahigh energy dissipation over a broad frequency range, which is difficult by traditional means. This is realized by precisely tailoring the relaxation of confined polymer fluids in the elastic networks. The symbiosis of this combination involves: elastic networks forming an elastic matrix that displays reversible deformation and polymer fluids reptating back and forth to dissipate mechanical energy. Using prototypical poly (n-butyl acrylate) elastomers, we demonstrate that the polymer-fluid-gels exhibit a controllable ultrahigh energy-dissipation property (loss factor larger than 0.5) with a broad frequency range (10−2 ~ 108 Hz). Energy absorption of the polymer-fluid-gels is over 200 times higher than that of commercial damping materials under the same dynamic stress. Moreover, their modulus is quasi-stable in the operating frequency range.

Dielectric Elastomer Actuators, Neuromuscular Interfaces, and Foreign Body Response in Artificial Neuromuscular Prostheses: A Review of the Literature for an In Vivo Application.

The inability to replace human muscle in surgical practice is a significant challenge. An artificial muscle controlled by the nervous system is considered a potential solution for this. Here, this is defined as a neuromuscular prosthesis. Muscle loss and dysfunction related to musculoskeletal oncological impairments, neuromuscular diseases, trauma or spinal cord injuries can be treated through artificial muscle implantation. At present, the use of dielectric elastomer actuators working as capacitors appears a promising option. Acrylic or silicone elastomers with carbon nanotubes functioning as the electrode achieve mechanical performances similar to human muscle in vitro. However, mechanical, electrical, and biological issues have prevented clinical application to date. Here materials and mechatronic solutions are presented which can tackle current clinical problems associated with implanting an artificial muscle controlled by the nervous system. Progress depends on the improvement of the actuation properties of the elastomer, seamless or wireless integration between the nervous system and the artificial muscle, and on reducing the foreign body response. It is believed that by combining the mechanical, electrical, and biological solutions proposed here, an artificial neuromuscular prosthesis may be a reality in surgical practice in the near future.

Hybridizing Direct Ink Write and mask-projection Vat Photopolymerization to enable additive manufacturing of high viscosity photopolymer resins

Vat Photopolymerization (VP) is an additive manufacturing (AM) process that enables the fabrication of parts with high-resolution features and sharp corners through its selective patterning of UV irradiation. Currently, VP is capable of only processing low viscosity photoresins due to the constraints imposed by the recoating process, which limits both the available materials and the mechanical properties of the final parts. Conversely, Direct Ink Write (DIW), a material extrusion process, is capable of processing high viscosity photoresins but patterns features directly via a nozzle, which limits both achievable feature resolution and shape. To enable the layered processing of high viscosity photoresins (and thus high-performance materials) while retaining high-resolution features, the authors have created a novel AM process that integrates DIW and VP printing modalities. The resulting hybrid process uses the DIW system to extrude an unpatterned layer of photoresin that is then selectively photocured into the desired layer shape by a UV DLP projector. The pressurized extrusion mechanism of DIW and shear-thinning behavior of the photoresins enable the processing of photoresins with viscosities that are multiple orders of magnitude larger than which can be currently processed via traditional VP. The DLP’s selective irradiation of the dispensed layer enable the realization of high-resolution features that are orders of magnitude smaller than that which can be currently processed via DIW. The hybrid process’s relaxation of viscosity constraints allows for the printing of new photoresins with novel chemistries, high molecular weight monomers, and/or high solids loading that ultimately result in greatly improved material properties compared to traditional photoresins. To demonstrate the capabilities of the hybrid system three materials were printed from novel, high-viscosity photoresins: (1) an all-aromatic polyimide, (2) an urethane acrylate elastomer, (3) a highly loaded alumina photopolymer suspension. The all-aromatic polyimide photoresin had a viscosity of 770 Pa s and the final parts had a degradation temperature of 534 °C. The urethane acrylate elastomer photoresin had a viscosity of 21.7 Pa s and the parts exhibited an average elongation of 599% and an average stress of 16.3 MPa at failure. A stiffer reinforced urethane acrylate photoresin with 5 wt% silica had a viscosity of 38.6 Pa s, and the parts exhibited an average elongation of 430% and an average stress of 14.8 MPa at failure. The 85 wt% alumina photopolymer suspension had a viscosity of 1350 Pa s, exhibiting a final sintered flexural strength at 25 and 400 °C of 154.9 and 156.6 MPa respectively. These three case studies demonstrate the hybrid AM process’s ability to print high-performance materials from high viscosity photoresins while retaining the high-resolution and sharp features expected of VP parts.

Stable waterborne epoxy emulsions and the effect of silica nanoparticles on their coatings properties

The aim of this study was to prepare stable waterborne epoxy emulsions and study the properties of their corresponding coatings containing different contents of silica nanoparticles. For this purpose and in the first step, the stabilizing effect of various amounts of an acrylate terpolymer latex (poly (methyl methacrylate-co-butyl acrylate-co-acrylic acid)) and a non-ionic emulsifier (nonyl phenol ethoxylates 20 emulsifier (known as Kenon 20)) on waterborne epoxy emulsions was explored. The results indicated that the emulsion containing 5 wt.% latex and 6 wt.% Kenon 20 (EK6A5) was the most stable. In the next step, silica nanoparticles with 1, 2, 3, and 4 wt.% were added to EK6A5 emulsion. It was found that addition of nanoparticles up to 3 wt.% improved the stability. Finally, the pure and nanoparticle contained emulsions were coated on a steel substrate and their adhesion performance, pencil hardness, surface wettability, and wear and corrosion resistance were investigated. The comparison between the samples with and without silica nanoparticles revealed enhanced properties such as adhesion strength (up to 5B), wear resistance, corrosion resistance (degree of blistering up to 8 F and mean rust creepage up to 10), and increased contact angle (up to 63°), by addition of proper amounts of silica nanoparticles (up to 3 wt.%).

Improving the dielectric properties of acrylic resin elastomer with reduced graphene oxide decorated with polystyrene

A high performance composite based on acrylic resin elastomer (AE) with a low dielectric loss and a high dielectric constant was prepared through introducing hybrid filler of chemically reduced graphene oxide (RGO) decorated with polystyrene cationic microspheres (PS-DMC) (referred to the composite here as PS-RGO/AE). PS-DMC can not only improve the compatibility between the filler and the matrix so that the filler is uniformly dispersed in the matrix to increase the dielectric constant of the composites, but also can be used as an insulating layer to reduce leakage current and reduce the dielectric loss of the composites. The dielectric constant of 2.43 vol% PS-RGO/AE is 194 at 100 Hz, which is 2.40 times that of the 1.55 vol% RGO/AE (81). Moreover, the dielectric loss of 2.43 vol% PS-RGO/AE composite still maintains at a low level (0.29 at 100 Hz), which is lower than that of 1.55 vol% RGO/AE composite (1.16 at 100 Hz). The higher dielectric constant of PS-RGO/AE composites is attributed to enhanced micro capacitors effect and Maxwell-Wagner-Sillars effect through the uniform dispersion of PS-RGO in the AE matrix and the formation of more interfaces.

Experimental studies on acrylic dielectric elastomers as actuator for artificial skeletal muscle application

The application of acrylic dielectric elastomer - an electrically actuated electro active polymer for artificial muscles has been investigated to evaluate its suitability for prosthetic and orthotic devices by comparing its mechanical and electrical properties similar to that of natural skeletal muscles. Experimental studies have been performed to get the properties of acrylic dielectric elastomers for design and development of artificial skeletal muscles. Therefore, a commercially available acrylic dielectric elastomer; VHB 4910 by 3M film is subjected to uniaxial tensile tests under varying rates, stress relaxation test and loading-unloading test on the universal testing machines and undergoes an electrical actuation test after pre-straining. The results of such tests have been discussed separately and then compared with previous researches on skeletal muscles as well. Moreover, the material response is also observed highly viscous and hyper-elastic, i.e., sensitive to very high strain rates as in the case of skeletal muscles. These results can be utilised in material selection to develop dielectric elastomer actuator applications for artificial muscles.

Experimental studies on acrylic dielectric elastomers as actuator for artificial skeletal muscle application

Experimental studies on acrylic dielectric elastomers as actuator for artificial skeletal muscle application

3D fluorescent mapping of invisible molecular damage after cavitation in hydrogen exposed elastomers.

Elastomers saturated with gas at high pressure suffer from cavity nucleation, inflation, and deflation upon rapid or explosive decompression. Although this process often results in undetectable changes in appearance, it causes internal damage, hampers functionality (e.g., permeability), and shortens lifetime. Here, we tag a model poly(ethyl acrylate) elastomer with π-extended anthracene-maleimide adducts that fluoresce upon network chain scission, and map in 3D the internal damage present after a cycle of gas saturation and rapid decompression. Interestingly, we observe that each cavity observable during decompression results in a damaged region, the shape of which reveals a fracture locus of randomly oriented penny-shape cracks (i.e., with a flower-like morphology) that contain crack arrest lines. Thus, cavity growth likely proceeds discontinuously (i.e., non-steadily) through the stable and unstable fracture of numerous 2D crack planes. This non-destructive methodology to visualize in 3D molecular damage in polymer networks is novel and serves to understand how fracture occurs under complex 3D loads, predict mechanical aging of pristine looking elastomers, and holds potential to optimize cavitation-resistance in soft materials.