Acrylamide In Foods Research Articles

Contaminant acrylamide in food: toxicity, detection methods, mitigation measures and risk assessment for humans

Food safety is related to all aspects of human life, and the quality of food has a profound impact on people's lives and health. Acrylamide is a chemical pollutant produced by the Maillard reaction in baked goods such as potato chips, bread, and cookies. Studies have shown that acrylamide has neurotoxicity, carcinogenicity, reproductive toxicity, genotoxicity, and hepatosplenic toxicity in humans. However, the carcinogenicity of acrylamide in humans is still controversial, and it is unclear whether there is a significant correlation between human exposure to acrylamide and cancer incidence. This review aims to explore the latest research on the human health hazards of acrylamide and prevent or reduce the hazards of acrylamide to humans by detection methods, risk assessment, and mitigation measures to ensure people's food safety.

Acrylamide Exposure from Common Culinary Preparations in Spain, in Household, Catering and Industrial Settings.

In 2019, the European Commission recommended monitoring the presence of acrylamide in certain foods not included in Regulation 2158/2017, to consider other sources of exposure to the contaminant. In the present study, eleven groups of processed foods commonly consumed in Spain were classified, according to their food matrix, into potato-based food, cereal-based food and food based on cereal mixed with meat, fish or vegetables. Samples were collected from three different settings: household, catering services and industrial origin, to evaluate the influence of the food preparation site on acrylamide formation. The highest concentrations of acrylamide were observed in chips (French fries), especially those prepared at home. Although at lower levels, all the other foods also contained significant concentrations of acrylamide, confirming the need to control its content in foods not included in the EU regulation. Industrially processed foods made a lower contribution to acrylamide exposure, probably due to the more stringent controls exercised on culinary processes in this context. The higher levels recorded for households and catering services highlight the need for greater awareness of culinary processes and for measures to be adopted in these settings to limit the formation of acrylamide in food preparation.

Mechanistic evidence for the effect of sulphur-based additive: methionine, on acrylamide reduction

ABSTRACT The unavoidable presence of acrylamide in foods has fuelled the search for a suitable food additive, one that can successfully mitigate dietary acrylamide levels without changing food quality or compromising the health of consumers. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a sulphur-based additive and amino acid, methionine, on acrylamide reduction. Differential scanning calorimetry, supported by chromatographic measurements, has shown that methionine interacts with acrylamide at a possible optimum temperature of 160°C, thereby disfavouring acrylamide polymerisation. Analysis of the methionine–acrylamide interaction via density functional theoretical modelling (DFT/6-31 + G(d)/RCAM-B3LYP) revealed that methionine’s reducing effect may be driven by a Michael-type conjugation of the vinyl group of acrylamide at both the sulphur atom (∆Gf = −53 kJ mol−1) and the amino group (∆Gf = −11.84 kJ mol−1) of methionine. The former conjugation pathway results in a product that is more thermodynamically feasible.

Consumption study and margin of exposure of acrylamide in food consumed by the Bogotá population in Colombia

Acrylamide is a food contaminant that is formed during processes such as frying, baking and roasting. According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), acrylamide is a possible carcinogenic compound in humans. In this work, 257 food samples were analyzed in Colombia to determine the acrylamide content. Samples of potato chips, french fries, bread, cookies, coffee, panela, fried banana and traditional fritters (such as egg or cheese pies) were prepared and analyzed following the Total Diet Study methodology. The highest acrylamide content was found in potato chips with 635 μg/kg and panela with 521 μg/kg. The calculation of margin of exposure was made by combining the analytical results of composition with consumption data. The highest average exposure in the group of adults was 0.30 μg/kg body weight (b.w.) per day in adults from 19 to 30 years old; for children, the highest exposure was 0.92 μg/kg b.w. per day in children from 2 to 3 years old. These exposure values indicate that acrylamide is a public health concern for the Bogota population.

Impact of thermal processing on levels of acrylamide in a wheat‐lentil flour matrix

AbstractA growing demand for plant‐based protein has seen a resurgence in the utilisation of pulses such as lentil and chickpea as a protein‐rich substrate to produce food products traditionally based on animal or cereal protein. Additionally, pulses offer metabolic benefits due to the bioactivity of compounds including phenolic acids, simple and complex carbohydrates and a more complete amino‐acid profile which is not found in cereal grains. However, there is an increasing concern in the formation of acrylamide in food which occurs when asparagine, an abundant amino acid found in pulses, forms a complex with the reducing sugars; glucose, fructose, and maltose. Recent studies in animal models have shown that acrylamide is carcinogenic and therefore is a concern for humans. High levels of acrylamide have been reported particularly in fried products, primarily due to the Maillard reaction which amplifies the formation of acrylamide. This study investigated the levels of acrylamide in bread, cookies, and extruded products prepared with wheat‐lentil composite flour. Our research found that extrusion resulted in a significantly lower concentration of acrylamide compared to traditional baking. Additionally, increasing the amount of lentil within the composite significantly increased the net concentration of acrylamide for all bread, cookies and extrudate products.

Acrylamide in non‐centrifugal sugars and syrups

Acrylamide in foods has been widely studied due to its possible carcinogenicity. Most foods investigated were prepared using low moisture and high temperature conditions. Non-centrifugal sugars (NCSs), which have been promoted as 'non-chemical' natural sweeteners, contain precursors of acrylamide and their production processes involved prolonged heating. The acrylamide content in 32 commercial NCSs from coconut, cane, and palmyra palm purchased in Asian countries were investigated. Additionally, syrups (80 o Brix) produced from coconut and palmyra raw saps and cane juice were prepared by evaporation with prolonged heating (2.5 h to reach 100 °C, 1 h to increase to 110 °C, held at 110 °C for 30 min). The compositions and contents of sugars, amino acids, and minerals and the physical characteristics of the raw saps, juice, and syrups were determined. The acrylamide content of these 32 products ranged from <15 to 4011 μg kg-1 . The raw saps and juice were mildly acidic (pH 5.14-5.66) and similar values were observed for their syrups (4.73-5.73). The contents of sucrose, fructose, and glucose in the saps and juice from these plants were similar among them, while their compositions of amino acids varied. The variation of the ornithine content was significant, having a striking influence on the extent of acrylamide formation (867-1564 μg kg-1 ) in the syrups prepared from these materials. This work emphasizes the importance of careful monitoring and control of the critical steps in the manufacturing process of NCSs (evaporation phase particularly) aiming to protect the health and safety of consumers. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Biomedical rationale for acrylamide regulation and methods of detection.

Acrylamide is the product of the Maillard reaction, which occurs when starchy, asparagine-rich foods including potato or grain products and coffee are fried, baked, roasted, or heated. Studies in rodents provide evidence that acrylamide is carcinogenic and a male reproductive harmful agent when administered in exceedingly high levels. A 2002 study identified acrylamide in popular consumer food and beverage products, stimulating the European Union (EU) and California to legislate public notice of acrylamide presence in fried and baked foods, and coffee products. The regulatory legislation enacted in the EU and California has scientists working to develop foods and processes aimed at reducing acrylamide formation and advancing rapid and accurate analytical methods for the quantitative and qualitative determination of acrylamide in food and beverage products. The purpose of this review is to survey the studies performed on rodents and humans that identified the potential health impact of acrylamide in the human diet, and provide insight into established and emerging analytical methods used to detect acrylamide in blood, aqueous samples, and food.

Is Acrylamide really a food safety issue?

PurposeAcrylamide is a compound found in several food products. Due to the toxicity of this compound, research also seeks strategies to modify industrial and homemade processes, impacting on the reduction of the compound. This paper aims to discuss the aspects surrounding the presence of acrylamide in foods.Design/methodology/approachPublished literature on the presence of acrylamide in foods and on its effects has been reviewed. This paper explores the importance of this compound, summarizes the knowledge of its formation and gathers data on its incidence in food and the possibilities of mitigation. Special attention is given to an evaluation of the toxicological tests applied, to analyze whether acrylamide can be considered as a food safety problem.FindingsHuman exposure to food with high levels of acrylamide varies in their levels regarding the consumption of food in the diet and not only by the level of the compound present in them. Although the compound is well defined as toxic to humans, the association between its intake and most common cancers may not be directly related.Originality/valueDepending on the approach of the researchers, contradictory results are obtained, showing the importance of this topic to the development of healthy food products. Further research is still needed to validate the potential effects of acrylamide on human health.

Introduction to the Special Issue: New Frontiers in Acrylamide Study in Foods—Formation, Analysis and Exposure Assessment

Acrylamide is a chemical contaminant that naturally originates during the thermal processing of many foods. Since 2002, worldwide institutions with competencies in food safety have promoted activities aimed at updating knowledge for a revaluation of the risk assessment of this process contaminant. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) ruled in 2015 that the presence of acrylamide in foods increases the risk of developing cancer in any age group of the population. Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/2158 establishes recommended mitigation measures for the food industry and reference levels to reduce the presence of acrylamide in foods and, consequently, its harmful effects on the population. This Special Issue explores recent advances on acrylamide in foods, including a novel insight on its chemistry of formation and elimination, effective mitigation strategies, conventional and innovative monitoring techniques, risk/benefit approaches and exposure assessment, in order to enhance our understanding for this process contaminant and its dietary exposure.

Determination of acrylamide in foods by automatic accelerated solvent extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

AbstractThe aim of the experiment is to establish a method for the determination of acrylamide in food by automatic accelerated solvent extraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. D3-acrylamide was used as isotope internal standard, crushed samples were extracted and purified by automatic accelerated solvent, acrylamide was derivatized into 2,3-dibromopropanamide by potassium bromide and potassium bromate under acidic conditions, and then the derivative was extracted by ethyl acetate and detected by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The method had a good linear relationship in the concentration range of 10–2000 ng/mL, and the coefficient of determination (R2) was 0.9997. The detection limit of the method was 3 μg/kg. The quantification limit of the method was 10 μg/kg. The standard addition recovery of acrylamide was between 105 and 120%, and the relative standard deviation of the recovery of acrylamide was less than 3.0%. The experimental result showed that the method was simple, sensitive, efficient and accurate, and could be used for the determination of acrylamide in food.

Exposure to acrylamide from home-cooked food: fried potatoes (rösti) in Switzerland as an example

ABSTRACT There is a significant lack of data on acrylamide in food which is prepared domestically, as obtaining samples of food cooked in people’s homes is more complex than taking samples from shops. Rösti is a fried potato dish, which can be a significant contributor to acrylamide exposure, particularly in the German speaking areas of Switzerland. A set of 71 samples was collected from people who cooked the dish at home. The average acrylamide content was 709 µg/kg. Based on a food frequency questionnaire and on a Swiss national food survey the results enabled the determination of the exposure of the population to acrylamide through home-made rösti. The values for an exposure estimate to acrylamide from rösti are 7.8 µg/day for the whole population (including rösti eaters and non-eaters) and 27.2 µg/day for predominantly rösti consumers participating in this study.

The Coffee-Acrylamide Apparent Paradox: An Example of Why the Health Impact of a Specific Compound in a Complex Mixture Should Not Be Evaluated in Isolation.

The health implications of acrylamide in food are a matter of concern based on toxicological studies in rodents, which showed that doses of acrylamide more than 100 times higher than those estimated to result from dietary exposure in humans are carcinogenic; however, the cancer types reported in rodents are species-specific, and whether these results can be extrapolated to humans is still in question. In fact, human epidemiological studies revealed a general lack of association between dietary acrylamide exposure and the incidence of different cancer types. Even occupational exposure to acrylamide, resulting in acrylamide exposure nearly 10 times higher than dietary exposure, did not increase tumor occurrence. Furthermore, the consumption of coffee, which is a main contributor of dietary acrylamide exposure, actually decreases the overall incidence of cancer in humans and afford global health benefits, increasing both lifespan and healthspan on ageing. This paradox clearly illustrates the risk of evaluating an individual molecule independently of its complete food matrix, which may have other components that completely override the effects of the considered molecule.

Acrylamide exposure represses neuronal differentiation, induces cell apoptosis and promotes tau hyperphosphorylation in hESC-derived 3D cerebral organoids

Acrylamide (ACR) is a common food contaminant with neurotoxic effects that are formed in the Maillard browning reaction during the heat processing of food. Importantly, pregnant women are also exposed to ACR in food during pregnancy and thus, the fetus is likely affected. However, the mechanisms of ACR-caused neurotoxicity on human brain development are still unclear. Many recent studies employed cerebral organoids based on human embryonic stem cells (hESC) for investigating human neurodevelopmental disorders and toxicity. Here, we generated hESC-derived cerebral organoids to evaluate the neurodevelopmental toxicity of ACR. The results indicated that exposure to ACR significantly altered the transcriptional profile, increased nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2)-mediated gene expression, induced cell apoptosis, repressed neuronal differentiation, and promoted tau hyperphosphorylation in cerebral organoids, which may contribute to ACR-induced neurodevelopmental toxicity. These results indicate that the risk of transplacental exposure of the fetus to ACR should be evaluated and pregnant mothers should limit their exposure to ACR.

Intake of acrylamide at the dietary relevant concentration causes splenic toxicity in adult zebrafish

Acrylamide (AA) has recently been recognized as an immediate hazardous chemical compound owing to its various toxicities and unavoidable contamination of certain daily foods prepared at a high temperature. AA in foods is thus a worldwide concern; however, its toxicity at the dietary relevant concentration has yet to be experimentally elucidated. To determine whether dietary AA intake causes adverse health effects, adult zebrafish were fed a diet containing AA at a relevant dose for one month. Although AA-fed zebrafish showed no superficial abnormalities, their spleen was severely swollen. Therefore, their spleen was analyzed histologically and pathologically and the changes in cytokine expression in their spleen were also examined. Based on our findings, the intake of AA-containing food caused splenic damages, including cyst formation, hemorrhage, and inflammation, which were accompanied by immune responses as indicated by the appearance of a melanomacrophage center, activation of macrophages, and upregulation of major inflammatory cytokines in the spleen. Collectively, for the first time, we provided experimental evidence of the splenic toxicity caused by dietary AA intake.

Low-Cost Electrochemical Determination of Acrylamide in Processed Food Using a Hemoglobin – Iron Magnetic Nanoparticle – Chitosan Modified Carbon Paste Electrode

Acrylamide is a neurotoxin that is potentially carcinogenic to animals. In processed food, it is a side product of the Maillard reaction that is primarily formed when a carbohydrate-reach food is fried or baked. In this work, a sensitive and low-cost biosensor was prepared on a simple carbon paste electrode. Hemoglobin was initially fixed on a hybrid nanocomposite composed of iron magnetic nanoparticles with a layer of chitosan. The nanocomposite/hemoglobin was mixed with carbon paste to produce a biosensor. The device presented repeatability for both measurement and construction, with relative errors of 4.14% and 4.68%, respectively. The calibration curve presented linearity (R2 equal to 0.9945) for acrylamide concentrations ranging from 10 to 171 nmol L−1. The limits of detection was 0.06 nmol L−1, respectively, with analytical recoveries from 90.83% to 103.64%. The device was successfully used for the analysis of French fries . These results show that a simple and sensitive device was constructed, which is suitable to monitor the levels of acrylamide in food.

Review of Research into the Determination of Acrylamide in Foods.

Acrylamide (AA) is produced by high-temperature processing of high carbohydrate foods, such as frying and baking, and has been proved to be carcinogenic. Because of its potential carcinogenicity, it is very important to detect the content of AA in foods. In this paper, the conventional instrumental analysis methods of AA in food and the new rapid immunoassay and sensor detection are reviewed, and the advantages and disadvantages of various analysis technologies are compared, in order to provide new ideas for the development of more efficient and practical analysis methods and detection equipment.

Survey for acrylamide in processed foods from Korean market and individual exposure estimation using a non-parametric probabilistic model

ABSTRACT Acrylamide, a known carcinogen, is formed during preparation of food containing reducing sugar and asparagine. Because acrylamide exposure of the population is primarily through food, the maximum levels of acrylamide in food were set by the European Commission in 2017. Moreover, in the 2016 Korean Total Diet study, acrylamide showed the lowest margin of exposure among 23 food-processing-related chemicals, necessitating risk reduction options. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the variation of acrylamide content in different food items and identify the food categories, to provide options for risk management. Acrylamide was analysed using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry in more than 1,000 processed food items. To estimate acrylamide exposure, the analytical data obtained herein and the food consumption data of Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 2013 to 2017 were used. A non-parametric technique of a probabilistic model was used for exposure estimation. Confectioneries (here this category includes potato and similar savoury snacks) contained a wide range of acrylamide content. Particularly, the highest acrylamide content was detected in a tea made of Jerusalem artichoke. The presence of acrylamide in turmeric along with the Jerusalem artichoke was reported in this study for the first time. The main contributors of dietary acrylamide exposure were confectioneries for youths aged 3–18 years and coffee for adults aged 19–80 years. Therefore, risk management in confectionery and coffee could help reduce acrylamide exposure for Koreans. In addition, the mitigation strategies for food containing high acrylamide content, such as Jerusalem artichoke tea, are needed to reduce acrylamide exposure to loyal consumers.

How Far is the Spanish Snack Sector from Meeting the Acrylamide Regulation 2017/2158?

In 2017, the European Commission published Regulation 2017/2158 establishing mitigation measures and benchmark levels to reduce acrylamide in foods. Acrylamide was determined in seventy potato crisp samples commercialized in Spain. The aim was to update knowledge about the global situation in the snack sector and evaluate the effectiveness of mitigation strategies applied, especially since the publication of the Regulation. Results were compared with data previously published in 2004, 2008, and 2014, assessing the evolution over recent years. Average acrylamide content in 2019 (664 µg/kg, range 89–1930 μg/kg) was 55.3% lower compared to 2004, 10.3% lower compared to 2008 and practically similar to results from 2014. Results support the effectiveness of mitigation measures implemented by Spanish potato crisp manufacturers. However, 27% of samples exhibited concentrations above the benchmark level established in the Regulation (750 μg/kg), which suggests that efforts to reduce acrylamide formation in this sector must be continued. Besides the variability seen between samples, acrylamide significantly correlated with the color parameter a*, which enables discrimination of whether potato crisps contain above or below benchmark content. The calculated margin of exposure for carcinogenicity was below the safety limit, which should be considered from a public health point of view.

Effects of Chickpea Protein on Carbohydrate Reactivity in Acrylamide Formation in Low Humidity Model Systems.

Asparagine and reducing sugars are the principal precursors of acrylamide in foods. Their main sources in pastries are flour and hen egg yolks. One method of reducing acrylamide content in food may be to add a chickpea protein preparation. The aim of the study was to determine the effects of the chickpea protein preparation on the thermodynamic properties of carbohydrates and the amount of acrylamide formed in low humidity model systems. In the studied systems, the type and amount of acrylamide precursors and humidity were designed to reflect the parameters typical of shortcrust cookies. In the study, the highest amounts of acrylamide were formed in the reaction between asparagine and fructose and the lowest in the reaction between asparagine and sucrose. Furthermore, the addition of chickpea protein to the analyzed carbohydrate–asparagine model systems reduced the content of acrylamide formed during baking at 180 °C regardless of the type of carbohydrate. The greatest acrylamide reduction (41%) was found in the model system containing fructose.

A Review on Acrylamide in Food: Occurrence, Toxicity, and Mitigation Strategies.

Acrylamide (AA) is a food contaminant present in a wide range of frequently consumed foods, which makes human exposure to this toxicant unfortunately unavoidable. However, efforts to reduce the formation of AA in food have resulted in some success. This review aims to summarize the occurrence of AA and the potential mitigation strategies of its formation in foods. Formation of AA in foods is mainly linked to Maillard reaction, which is the first feasible route that can be manipulated to reduce AA formation. Furthermore, manipulating processing conditions such as time and temperature of the heating process, and including certain preheating treatments such as soaking and blanching, can further reduce AA formation. Due to the high exposure to AA, recognition of its toxic effect is necessary, especially in developing countries where awareness about AA health risks is still very low. Therefore, this review also focuses on the different toxic effects of AA exposure, including neurotoxicity, genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, reproductive toxicity, hepatotoxicity, and immunotoxicity.