Acid Rain Control Research Articles

Stochastic programming models for air quality management

Five stochastic programming models are developed for identifying cost-effective acid rain control strategies. Four of the models are based upon chance constrained formulations—the last is a two-stage programming model with simple recourse. The chance constrained models include both traditional forms in which individual constraint reliability levels are user-prescribed constants, we well as a joint chance constrained model in which reliability levels are cast as decision variables.

The Utility Industry Response to Title IV: Generation Mix, Fuel Choice, Emissions and Costs

The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 incorporate, for the first time, provisions aimed specifically at the control of acid rain. These provisions restrict emissions of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen from electric power generating stations. The restrictions on sulfur dioxide take the form of an overall cap on the aggregate emissions from major generating plants, allowing substantial flexibility in the industry's response to those restrictions. This report describes one response scenario through the year 2030, which was examined by simulation of the utility industry under assumptions consistent with a reference case that was used for analysis of the National Energy Strategy. Emissions that would result from the use of existing and new capacity and the associated additional costs of meeting demand subject to the emission limitations imposed by the Clean Air Act are projected. Fuel use effects, including coal market shifts, consistent with the response scenario are also described. These results, while dependent on specific assumptions for this scenario, provide insight into the general character of the likely utility industry response to Title IV.

Resolution of the United States-Canadian Conflict Over Acid Rain Controls

The 1989 and 1990 economic summits in Paris and Houston, as well as the 1992 Rio Summit, suggest a growing global commitment to protect the environment. In this context, it is important to understand the causes of conflict among states over environmental issues as well as the factors that inhibit or facilitate dispute resolution. To that end, a number of theoretical frameworks attempt to explain the outcome of pollution-related conflicts. Four of these frameworks are assessed here for their relevance in understanding the conflict between Canada and the United States over acid rain controls and its eventual resolution. A meta-regimes analysis predicts the range of possible outcomes consistent with prevailing political and economic norms and principles. An interest-based explanation predicts the initial bargaining positions of the two countries and the decade-long intransigence to agreement within the United States. An epistemic community analysis identifies the importance of both the knowledge base and issue-area experts. Negotiations analysis, which addresses the dynamics among many of the foregoing factors, also ensures that the potential influence of all affected stakeholders is included, and incorporates nonobvious issue linkages. As the acid rain case demonstrates, each of the frameworks provides partial insights. To understand the whole it is useful to integrate the frameworks.

Making a market for SO 2 emissions trading

Under the innovative, market-based approach to acid rain control included in the Clean Air Act amendments of 1990 (CAAA), sulfur dioxide emission allowances allocated to existing electric utility sources of these emissions can be used by utilities, banked for future use, or sold or traded to other users. Most power plants that burn fossil fuels will need to obtain an adequate supply of allowances from the market of EPA-sponsored auctions to cover their future emissions. This article addresses the respective roles of regulators and the private sector in facilitating a market for SO{sub 2} emission allowances. In previous work, the authors have argued that state public utility commissions should seize the opportunity to encourage utilities to facilitate the allowance market. Yet it is the nature of new markets that many potential participants (including regulators) are risk-averse and wait for others to make the first move. Taken to the extreme, such behavior is a prescription for failure. The authors stated purpose is both to offer a perspective on how to make a market for what was previously considered an externality, as well as to stimulate debate among the various players and elicit better ideas. In fact, much more may be atmore » stake. The success or failure of the emissions trading program could well set a benchmark for future environmental protection efforts in the US and globally.« less

The stem-II regional scale acid deposition and photochemical oxidant model—IV. The impact of emission reductions on mesoscale acid deposition in the lower ohio river valley

Assessment of the effect of reduction in emissions of primary sources on eventual levels of pollutants, pH of precipitation and total wet deposition is crucial in designing acid-rain control strategies. The STEM-II/ASM model is used to investigate the effect of reduction in emissions on the ultimate deposition patterns and amounts of major acidic pollutants in a mesoscale region. This work also investigates the effect of background levels of primary pollutant species on the eventual levels and deposition amounts of SO 4 = and NO 3 − . A series of mesoscale simulations were conducted in which emissions of primary sources of NO x and SO 2 were reduced and/or background concentrations of certain key species were changed. The results indicate that the dominant effect on the eventual deposition amounts of SO 4 = and NO 3 − is due to background concentrations of key precursor species such as SO x and NO x . With relatively high background concentrations, reducing SO 2 emissions by 50% and NO x emissions by 40% resulted in reductions of 2–3% for SO 4 = wet deposition aand about 15% for NO 3 − wet deposition. However, reducing the background concentrations of SO 2 and SO 4 = by 50% and NO, NO 2 and HNO 3 by 40% resulted in substantial reductions in wet deposition; SO 4 = deposition was reduced by 40–50% and NO 3 − deposition was reduced by approximately 35%.

Estimating background precipitation quality from network data

Assessments of the relative merits of alternative acid-rain control strategies revolve around considerations of potential benefit per unit effort and/or cost. A question that often arises concerns the changes in deposition that would follow if all industrial (or societal) emissions were eliminated, in which case precipitation chemistry would be dominated by emissions from natural sources. Estimates of the ‘natural background’ of precipitation chemistry can be based on (a) measurements made at distant locations, (b) reducing emissions to zero in numerical simulations, or (c) examinations of existing data. Each alternative is flawed because (a) of the assumption that natural emissions in one location are like those in another, (b) no existing model contains descriptions of chemical processes involving all of the chemical species of importance, and (c) all contemporary data records or relevance are affected by precisely the emissions we wish to reduce. Here, the third alternative is explored in detail, using event precipitation chemistry data from North America. The analysis reveals a background pH level that varies from site to site, but always lies in the range 5·0–5·3.

Implications of the Clean Air Act acid rain title on industrial boilers

AbstractThis paper discusses the impacts of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments related to acid rain controls, as they apply to industrial boilers. Emphasis is placed on explaining the Title IV provisions of the Amendments that permit “nonutility” sources to participate in the SO2 allowance system. The allowance system, as it pertains to industrial boiler operators, is described, and the opportunities for operators to trade and/or sell SO2 emission credits is discussed.The paper also reviews flue gas desulfurization system technologies available for industrial boiler operators who may choose to participate in the system. Furnace sorbent injection, advanced silicate process, lime spray drying, dry sorbent injection, and limestone scrubbing are described, including statements of their SO2 removing capability, commercial status, and costs. Capital costs, levelized costs and cost‐effectiveness are presented for these technologies.

Benefit-Cost Implications of Acid Rain Controls: An Evaluation of the NAPAP Integrated Assessment

Concluding ten years of study, the U.S. National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) recently issued its integrated assessment report designed to provide guidance to policy makers on the ...

Regulatory aspects of emissions trading: Conflicts between economic and environmental goals

Emissions trading can provide a least-cost path for acid rain control for electric utilities. But there are many ways regulators — intentionally or inadvertently — can bias utilities' response to the new order.

Application of a multiobjective electric power production costing model to the U.S. acid rain problem

In this paper a new methodology for state- and utility-level analysis of the cost and regional economic impacts of strategies for lowering utility SO 2 emissions is discussed and applied to the state of Ohio. The methodology is based upon probabilistic production costing and economic input-output analysis. The model considers the entire range of potential control strategies from a systems perspective and develops trade-off curves between the costs of electricity and the production of SO 2 emissions. This approach to the U.S. acid rain problem focuses on utility planning, coal-field employment, and economic impact assessment of proposed U.S. Congressional legislation. The paper initially reviews uncertainties involved in evaluating acid rain control programs and discusses modeling techniques that have been used in the past. Five specific aspects of the Bush Administration 's proposed amendments to the U.S. Clean Air Act are investigated: hardware retrofits, energy conservation, industrial sources of SO 2, credits for NO x reductions, and emissions banking. The paper concludes with an example of a non-inferior set generated by the model.

Mapping the Benefits of Acid-Rain Controls

Mapping the Benefits of Acid-Rain Controls

Integrating multiple long-range transport models into optimization methodologies for acid rain policy analysis

This paper addresses certain complications inherent in developing efficient acid rain control strategies given that our knowledge of the physics and chemistry of long-range pollutant transport and transformation is imprecise. This imprecision (or uncertainty) translates, in a sense, into risk. We seek here to demonstrate that there are currently available methods to better define this risk and provide a basis for decision-making. More specifically, these methods involve chance-constrained stochastic programming techniques. A distinguishing characteristic of the approach is our use of the output from multiple long-range transport models to develop probabilistic descriptors of transport/transformation phenomena.

Acid rain and photochemical oxidants control policies in the European community: A decision analysis framework

The methodology and key findings are presented of a study to evaluate costs and benefits of alternative acid rain control strategies to be implemented at a European Community level between 1980 and 2000. The methodology adopted was decision analysis whose key advantage is an explicit consideration of uncertainty. Benefits predicted under some of the control strategies were found to be significantly greater than those predicted for the ‘no control’ case, particularly for lakes; urban environmental quality was only expected to improve greatly under the strategy that specifically targeted urban emissions; predictions for crops and forests were relatively uncertain due to inadequacies in the measurement and modelling of ozone.

Emissions trading: Environmental perestroika or flimflam?

The author challenges the utility industry to accept acid rain controls and use the flexibility offered by the Administration's Clean Air Act bill. This article presents the outlines of the proposal submitted by the Bush Administration. A successful and durable acid rain program requires an iron linkage between environmental protection and powerful economic efficiencies. The crucial elements are: (1) Substantial required reductions in emissions of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen; (2) Severe, unavoidable penalties for sources that fail to meet reduction requirements; (3) A nationwide cap on total emissions once required emissions reductions have been achieved; and (4) Complete flexibility for sources in the means they choose for compliance with their reduction requirements.

States preparing for acid rain legislation

A new clean air law is looking more and more likely from the 101st Congress. Several legislators have submitted different bills for updating the nearly 20-year-old law, and even the Administration has come forth with a proposal. One of the main functions of any new clean air law will be reduction of acid rain. And in a rare burst of governmental foresight, the Environmental Protection Agency and state air control organizations are already working on having programs in place able to meet the new requirements. Beginning in 1984, EPA provided several states with a total of nearly $3 million to develop future acid rain control strategies. The 47 projects funded provided the start for what became known as the State Acid Rain (STAR) Program. This was a unique program because it responded only to the threat of legislation, not to a law already enacted. EPA has recently released reports describing the results of the program ...

Coal to natural gas seasonal fuel switching: an option for acid rain control

An investigation is conducted of seasonal fuel-switching as a means to control SO/sub 2/ emissions. There is evidence that strategic control of emissions results in environmental improvements at a lower overall cost. The Electric Generation Expansion Analysis System (EGEAS) was used as the primary analytical tool for the study. The economics of gas substitution versus flue gas desulfurization technology was studied under a variety of economic conditions, taking into account initial capital investment, variable operating and maintenance costs, retrofit costs, pipelining costs, and a number of other factors. Natural gas substitution was found to be an economical means of efficient energy production combining low cost and significant emission reduction under a variety of conditions.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Coal to Natural Gas Seasonal Fuel Switching: An Option for Acid Rain Control

An investigation is conducted of seasonal fuel-switching as a means to control SO/sub 2/ emissions. There is evidence that strategic control of emissions results in environmental improvements at a lower overall cost. The Electric Generation Expansion Analysis System (EGEAS) was used as the primary analytical tool for the study. The economics of gas substitution versus flue gas desulfurization technology was studied under a variety of economic conditions, taking into account initial capital investment, variable operating and maintenance costs, retrofit costs, pipelining costs, and a number of other factors. Natural gas substitution was found to be an economical means of efficient energy production combining low cost and significant emission reduction under a variety of conditions. >

Environment and energy: An odd duo.

Some people believe that environmental policies will drive energy needs. Others believe that energy issues in the 101st US Congress will be determined by environmental concerns. But whatever may turn out to be the case, neither the demands of energy or of the environment can be met without consideration of the other. Environmental progress must be wed to energy issues such as efficiency and technology. Traditional approaches to their environmental problems always run into energy considerations, to be sure, but one way to avoid this collision of environmental and energy demands is to take an alternative, nontraditional approach. In the traditional approach, solutions to environmental problems such as global warming, acid rain, and nonattainment make energy-using demands, run into budgetary restraints, cost money, and include a command and control approach. The latter is based on the theory that by commanding acid rain control, for example, in legislation, the acid rain problem can be controlled. If and when they choose to move ahead, command control techniques certainly will be avoided; rather, the market place will sort out the conflict between this odd duo of environment-energy issues.

Acid Rain Policymaking and Environmental Federalism: Recent Developments, Future Prospects

Acid rain controls are one of the more salient policy issues for contemporary environmental federalism. Agenda prominence, however, does not guarantee agreement on the components of a regulatory program. Depending on how many tons of emissions reduction one wants, when one wants them, and how one permits emitters to achieve compliance, a control program's costs can vary by billions of dollars annually. This article provides a summary of significant state and national policy initiatives as well as an examination of the barriers and incentives for such action.

Acid rain abatement legislation—Costs and benefits

This paper estimates the industry and job effects at both the national and state levels of the two major acid rain control bills introduced in the House of Representatives and Senate during the 99th Congress. We find that expenditures to reduce acid deposition result in significant stimulation to US Industry and that jobs created by such expenditures are predominantly for American workers. In addition, we find that the economic effects for most states, including many midwestern and Appalachian states, are positive. Our findings cast doubt on the widespread notion that programs designed to control and diminish acid rain damage US industry in general, and in particular, do serious harm to midwestern and Appalachian states.