Accusative Case Research Articles

Subjects, topics and the accusative case alternation in Finnish. A discourse-related “split” account of the Subject function

This article investigates the morpho-syntactic and discourse properties of preverbal constituents in Finnish, providing a new interpretation of the distinction between Subjects and Topics, as well as an explanation for the Case forms that characterize the Object realization in this language. Based on a cartographic approach to Finnish clause structure, evidence is provided for a functional ‘separation’ between the evaluation of the EPP feature and the domain of Nominative Case assignment. Specifically, a functional ‘split’ is proposed in the high IP-zone between the TP projection, where Nominative Case is checked by the sentential Subject triggering verb agreement, and the SubjP position, dedicated to the EPP requirement and hosting the Subject of predication. Based on this distinction, preverbal constituents only qualify as ‘full Subjects’ if they pass through both Spec positions. Specific consequences apply to Subject agreement and the realization of Accusative Case when these projections host different constituents (e.g., necessive, existential and passive clauses). This split account can also provide a distinction between the Subject of predication (in the IP-zone) and a Topic (in the C-domain), showing that not any preverbal constituent can be a Subject, while any constituent can be topicalized, with specific discourse functions and language-specific restrictions.

The syntax and semantics of Swedish copular sentences: a comparative perspective

This paper investigates the (recent) case alternation in Swedish equative and predicational copular sentences (‘Cicero is Tully’, ‘Cicero is a nice guy’). A central contribution of the paper is showing that this alternation is an LF-phenomenon, contra Sigurðsson (in: Hartmann, Molnárfi (eds) Comparative studies in Germanic syntax: from Afrikaans to Zurich German. John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 2006) who conjectures that Swedish is changing in the direction of English and Danish, where all postcopular DPs receive Accusative case, regardless of interpretation. The Swedish alternation is shown to track the same semantic dimension that conditions the choice of predicate case in languages like Polish, Russian and Dutch, namely the distinction between stage and individual level predication. Interestingly, the Swedish alternation is also shown to share distributional properties with the predicate case alternations in these languages. To account for these observations, I propose that the morphological and semantic contrasts between the two alternants are mediated by a structural difference, such that Nominative case involves a biclausal structure, and Accusative a monoclausal structure. This paper further adds to the typological picture, showing that Swedish patterns like Polish, Russian and Dutch, but unlike English and Danish, not just in terms of equative and predicational sentences, but also in specificational copular sentences (‘The fastest runner here is Lisa’). I argue that a particular kind of predicate inversion analysis is required to account for the Swedish type of specification.

К вопросу о страдательном залоге в языках, распространенных на берегу Балтийского моря, с акцентом на севернорусском диалекте

The two characteristics of the passive voice found in the North Russian dialect and in other Circum-Baltic languages, the accusative case of the patient or theme as an argument of a verb with passive morphology and intransitive verbs passivized raise a number of related questions. The author of the present paper explores the issues under discussion from an areal-historical perspective, concluding that the aforementioned languages have a tendency for the agent to be the same element as the subject and the patient or theme to be the same element as the (direct) object of the sentence. In the North Russian dialect, we can see an example where the above fact holds true irrespective of whether the verb has an active or a passive morphology as the theme of the sentence assumes the accusative case regardless of whether it is an argument of a verb in the active or in the passive voice.The question as to what lexical elements can function as subjects is itself interesting. Moreover, there seems to be a correlation between what level of abstraction the syntactic category of subject has reached in a language and the existence of a pure passive mean- ing. The less abstract the category of subject is, as in case of Circum-Baltic languages, the farther structures with a passive morphology seem to be from a pure passive meaning. In languages such as English, however, where virtually any noun can function as a subject, there seems to be a pure passive meaning and there is only one morphological way of form- ing passive sentences.The nature of linguistic similarities found in genetically less related languages spoken in the same area has been given a number of varied accounts. The most salient of them ap- pears to be B. Drinka’s explanation based on the influence of Western European languages on ones spoken in the East of the area where once the Hanseatic League existed in the middle ages and I. Seržant’s theory concerning the foregrounding of the agent as passive structures with a stative interpretation gradually assumed a dynamic one.In fact, participles in the North Russian dialect ending in -n / -t can express a dynam- ic, that is, eventive interpretation with a perfect meaning and can even co-occur with the -sja / -s’ postfix, the latter phenomenon being absolutely unimaginable in Standard Russian, where the two affixes are in complementary distribution. The author assumes that the topic should be studied from the perspective of sociology and cultural anthropology as well since linguistic similarities and differences often reflect similarities and differences in thinking beyond the realm of linguistics.

Na with the Accusative: Marking the Addressee of Speech in some Western and Southern Russian Dialects

In this paper we will consider a construction with a preposition na (on) and an addressee of speech with verbs govorit’ (to speak) and skazat’ (to say) in some Southern Russian and Western Russian dialects. In standard Russian, the semantic role of the addressee of speech is marked with the dative case. We will focus on the examples from Russian dialects that use a different marker of the addressee of speech: the preposition na with the accusative case. The research is based on the data extracted from several dialectal corpora, including the Rogovatka corpus, (Starooskolsky district, Belgorod region) the Malinino corpus (Khlevinsky district, Lipetsk region), and the Opochka corpus (Opochecky district, Pskov region). Thus, we analyzed Western Russian (Opochka corpus) and Southern Russian data (Rogovatka and Malinino corpus). Constructions with the preposition na can have several meanings that can be distinguished into 2 groups: contexts with invectives and contexts that contain an impulse (motivation) to action. In the paper, we will consider these two groups of meanings as three stages of a semantic shift. We can suggest that the metaphorical transition of the construction occurs as follows: 1. A surface of a real physical object; 2. A sound wave on a surface, in which the addressee of speech acts with a component of aggression; 3. Influence and control of this addressee.

Who is kissing whom? Two-year-olds’ comprehension of pronouns, case and word order

Abstract Two-year olds’ comprehension of pronouns in transitive sentences was examined. Previously, children at this age have been shown to comprehend transitive sentences containing full nouns and pronouns in subject position (Gertner et. al. 2006; Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff 1996;), but little is known about when children begin to comprehend the nominative and accusative case in pronouns. Using a preferential looking task, we found that 27-month-old children were able to comprehend transitive, grammatical sentences that had subject-verb-object (SVO) word order and nominative pronouns in subject position or accusative pronouns in object position, but 19-month-old children did not demonstrate this comprehension. Furthermore, neither group showed a consistent interpretation for ungrammatical sentences containing pronouns, in contrast to adult participants. Our results suggest that the ability to use pronouns as an aid to understanding transitive sentences develops by 27 months, before children are capable of producing these pronouns in their own speech.

Старочувашский памятник с различением датива и аккузатива

This paper introduces the linguistic evidence extracted from the first translation of the Gospel of Matthew into Chuvash, which was published in Kazan in 1820. On the basis of a detailed analysis of dialect-specific features, and especially phonological and morphological innovations, the attested variety should be classified among the Kărmăš—Xĕrlĕ Čutay varieties of Viryal Chuvash. Such a conclusion is consistent with the available extra-linguistic evidence regarding the dialect affiliation of this early Bible translation. Many of the archaic features found in the first translation of the Gospel of Matthew into Chuvash were previously documented in other preStandard Chuvash texts from the 18th—19th centuries. One salient feature that distinguishes the Gospel translation from the other contemporary sources is that the attested variety retains the old distinction between the dative and accusative case markers (after a limited number of lexical and grammatical morphemes). Modern Chuvash makes use of the syncretic dative-accusative case suffix -(n)A, dial. -(j)A, which developed through the merger of reflexes of Proto-Turkic dative and accusative case markers, owing to phonological and paradigmatic factors. The loss of the dative-accusative distinction is usually considered an early phenomenon in the history of Chuvash because there is no trace of such a distinction in the modern Chuvash dialects. However, the fact that at least one of the Viryal Chuvash varieties featured the dative-accusative distinction as late as the 19th century provides evidence for a recent origin of the case syncretism in Chuvash. This makes the first translation of the Gospel of Matthew into Chuvash a key source on the development of the Chuvash case system prior to the emergence of the dative-accusative syncretism.

Дифференцированное маркирование объекта в тувинском языке: зависимость от функции и характера определения

For the Tuvan language, factors influencing Differential Object Marking remain uncovered despite extensive studies on the topic. This is due to the numerous cases of forms of the primary and accusative cases of the direct object replacing each other without noticeably changing the meaning of the sentence. Thus, it is necessary to elucidate all the causes of variation and establish their interactions. The current study focuses on the dependence of the direct object labeling on the function and the nature of the definition in the Tuvan language. The paper highlights the interaction of semantic, syntactic, communicative, and pragmatic factors influencing the choice of labeling. The analysis revealed that the direct object with the definition as a whole does not require a case. Firstly, the semantics of definition occupies a decisive place, as in the case of indexical pronouns (as a means of expressing anaphoric and deictic meanings). Secondly, the communicative role of the defined object in the utterance is of significance. The definition acts as a link between the object defined and the previous reference to that object, indicating information about the object that is already familiar to the addressee. Thirdly, discursive factors are distinct and important, including the speaker’s intention to clarify the referent or generalize by different means the meaning of the referent in the discourse depending on his or her goal. Thus, the referential properties of definitions alone do not allow unambiguously predicting the labeling of the nominal group.

Comparative anal0 sys of suffixes of possessive case in japanese and uzbek languages

In linguistics, the comparison of languages has always been in the center of attention. Although it is recognized by scholars that Japanese and Uzbek belong to the same language family, the Altaic language family, grammatical phenomena in both languages are not the same. While both languages have similarities, they also have differences. Comparing languages belonging to the same language family involves studying the phenomena that occur in that language. The category of agreement is widely observed in both languages, but there are some agreements between Japanese agreement agreements, which are given with one agreement in Uzbek, and the scope of application is narrow. The category of consonants is widely observed in both languages, but there are some consonants among the Japanese suffixes, which are given with one consonant in Uzbek, and the scope of application is also narrow. This article provides a comparative analysis of the Uzbek suffix of the accusative case and the differences between them

SЕMANTIC-SYNTACTICAND LEXICAL SPECIFICITY OF THE VOCATIVE IN THE IDIOLECT OF LESYA UKRAINKA

The article is devoted to elucidating the semantic and syntactic functions of the vocative, which is quite common in the poetic idiolect of Lesya Ukrainka. Its grammatical specificity is substantiated – the predominant use in lyrical poetry with two secondary semantic-syntactic functions: identification and semantic accentuation of the addressee to whom something is reported, and more limited use of the exclamatory with the primary semantic-syntactic function of the addressee – the subject of potential action). The function of the vocative identifier is traced mainly by the names of non-beings, and the function of semantic accentuation of the addressee – mostly by the names of persons who are informed about something but do not motivate them to action, and occasionally – by the names of non-beings. The parameters of the use of personalized names of masculine and feminine objects and nouns of the middle gender and nouns in the plural form in the positions of treatment with these semantic-syntactic functions of the vocative are noted. The well-known address in the form of the middle genus is a word that constitutes the lexical and grammatical specificity of Lesya Ukrainka’s poetic idiolect. Peculiarities of lexical filling of the accusative case are traced, the predominant and organic use of words from the vernacular in its function is stated. The poetess widely used the well-known in folk etiquette indefinite noun with the collective meaning of brothers and more limitedly – the indefinite noun gentlemen. A notable feature of the lexical range of the vocative is the predominant use of such etiquette words as sir, kind sir, noble lord, friend, heaven (as a tender address to a man younger than age), brother (as a friendly address to a man or a loved one, friend), good people and others that are inherent in the communication of ordinary people.

The Use of Contracted Forms of Albanian Language in Electronic Media Texts

The contracted forms of literary Albanian are of dative case of all persons singular and plural and of the accusative case in the third person singular and plural. In certain syntactic constructions they merge and thus form connected contracted forms. When used near each other, the first is dative, while the second is accusative. Their use according to the norm are correct. Their topic in the sentence is arranged and a linguist or a lecturer should not miss the omissions in texts with short, separate, or connected forms. On the contrary, we encounter misuses of short forms of Albanian in texts of published and electronic media. They are incorrectly used in some syntactic constructions, marked by case in case, one by one. Contracted form locations and their referral to a different pronoun or name as a repetition of an object appear to be harmonized with the respective forms as an object or its repetition. They are placed in front of the verb forms of each tense. Except in imperative they have a double topic. The contracted forms during usage in the dative and accusative cases directly mark direct or indirect object. The contracted forms of the first and second person singular and plural, in the dative case, are often used to mark directly the indirect object. (p. 226) The misuse of the contracted forms is more common in the third person of the dative case when i.e. singular (i) is used instead of plural (u). We also encounter the incorrect use of the contracted forms of the second person plural of the dative case (juve) you instead of (atyre u). This research reveals the wrong use of contracted forms in the texts of some electronic media (portals) in Pristina and Tirana.

An examination on mistakes of case suffixes’ usage in written expression of foreigners learning Turkish

While improving a learner’s language skills during native language and foreign language teaching, the learner should also be taught language rules. Language rules can be taught via grammar topics. One of the grammar topics is case suffixes. Not using any or none of these affixions causes a break in the semantic connection between words and a disruption in sentence structure. Case suffixes are topics to be emphasised on and require attention and elaboration while teaching foreigners Turkish because of their effect on spoken and written expressions with their semantic connection providing function. The aim of the study is to examine the mistakes done by foreigners learning Turkish in case suffixes (nominative, locative, ablative, dative and accusative). The study is qualitative. The data were collected via document review and the data resource was selected via the purposeful sampling method. The data resource for the study consists of written expression papers of a total of 69 learners. As a result of examining the papers, it was determined that there were mistakes with regard to case suffixes in the written expressions of the learners from each level, and most mistakes were done in the accusative case and fewer mistakes were done in the ablative case. 
 
 Keywords: Case suffixes, foreigners learning Turkish, teaching Turkish to foreigners.

Entre objetos no seleccionados y argumentos degradados

El objetivo de este artículo es abordar la manera en la que se manifiestan los argumentos de los verbos latinos prefijados por ante, circum, trans y praeter desde un enfoque neo-construccionista. La propuesta discute de qué manera los argumentos que parecen vincularse semánticamente con el prefijo obtienen la información morfológica de caso y qué sucede cuando alguno de ellos es degradado. Este recorrido permite plantear que las oraciones pasivas constituyen evidencia empírica en contra de que el caso del objeto no seleccionado por el verbo base sea asignado por el prefijo preposicional, ya que en estas construcciones este objeto presenta caso nominativo, en lugar de acusativo, algo inesperado si se postula que está subordinado a la preposición.

TRADITIONAL CONCEPT OF ARABIC GRAMMAR AND A MULTIFUNCTIONAL INTERPRETATION OF SYNTACTIC ELEMENTS

This paper attempts to explore the issue of multifunctional interpretation of syntactic elements in Arabic grammar. Thus, the aim of the research is to investigate the reasons underlying different grammatical interpretation of the same syntactic element in Arabic grammar. The focus is on an indefinite noun in the accusative case, which performs various functions within a sentence, the most common being the function of an absolute object. Through the analysis of a selected part of the Qur’anic text, the paper presents scholars’ attitudes towards this phenomenon. The findings showed that various multifunctional grammatical interpretations appeared from the very beginning of the standardization of grammar rules in Arabic. With its main postulates: an analytical approach, the concept of regency, the rule of implying certain grammar units, traditional concept of Arabic grammar left some space for the application of a functional-semantic criterion in the sentence analysis, which resulted in the appearance of different stances on the function of an indefinite noun in the accusative case. Grammatical multifunctionality is noticeable in the stances of Sibawayha, Ibn Hisham and others, while it is particularly notable within the studies dealing with the lingua-stylistic issues related to the Qur’anic text. The qualification of one syntactic from a few grammatical functions in a sentence and text results in lingua-stylistic implications in terms of textual economy and semantics.

Labile anticausatives in Jordanian Arabic

AbstractThis study examines the morpho-syntax of labile anticausative structures in Jordanian Arabic (JA). Although the transitive counterpart of anticausatives is marked via morphological affixes that reflect structural and lexical components in Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic, a number of verbs involving causative alternation exhibit identical forms in JA (e.g.,ġala[+T] ‘to CAUSE boil something’ vsġala[–T] ‘to BECOME boil’). Such variation poses challenges for mapping between verb morphology and its lexical semantics. To handle such variation, which is also observed cross-linguistically, we argue in favour of Schäfer (2008; 2012), Schäfer & Vivanco (2015), and Ramchand’s (2008) “causer-less” analysis over Koontz-Garboden’s (2009) “reflexive” analysis. This work further assumes the existence of a Voice phrase lacking a specifier (external argument) and assumes that Voice projection is headed by an implied Voice head (vcauser) that syntactically assigns the accusative case to its new subject and semantically encodes the internal argument and describes the resultant subevent of the verb. The work also provides an alternative solution for voice projection that lacks an explicit specifier bearing [+agent] or [+causer] feature specification. The work assumes the presence of an inchoative Voice head [vinch] introducing the Spec Voice Phrase, which encodes an inchoative resultant state of an event achieved over its theme. Contrary to Al-Qadi (2015), the present model assumes that such verbs constitute a middle position between transitive and intransitive verbs in JA but do not constitute a separate class of their own. Evidently, the correct characterization of the anticausative subclass distribution is that it surfaces wherever v is transitive as well as in intransitive volitional contexts (a non-natural class). More intriguingly, the presented material suggests that there is an ongoing process of diachronic change in spoken Arabic varieties (including JA) that amounts to the development and expansion of an inchoative class where no external or internal inchoative detransitivizing morphemes are involved. This topic, which incorporates an intriguing diachronic dimension in addition to the syntactic details, is missing from the generative literature on Arabic morpho-syntax and is potentially of sufficient interest to merit investigation.

Особенности ассистивных каузативных конструкций в современном бурятском языке

Introduction. The paper raises the issues of semantics and functioning of the assistive in the Buryat language. The assistive as a special meaning of causative constructions finds its expression in different languages of the world. Goals. The paper aims to consider some distinctive properties inherent to the functioning of assistivity as a particular meaning of causativity in the Buryat language. The novelty of the work is that this problem has not been studied in the Buryat language. Materials and Methods. The study analyzes speech patterns and fiction texts included in the Electronic Corpus of the Buryat Language. The methods of contextual and distributive analysis are used. Results. The assistive in the Buryat language is identified in accordance with the continuum scale of semantic types of causation which implies three meanings of sociative causation: ‘joint action’, ‘assistive’, and ‘supervision’. The paper notes that the assistive in the Buryat language changes not only the actant structure but also the event-role structure of the causative construction. Our research has shown that a special feature of the role structure of the assistive is that the assistant takes the place of the causer, and the causer here gets the role of a supplement. The work also considers features of constructions with assistive semantics. It is revealed that assistivity in the investigated language is implemented both in mono- and poly-predictive sentence structures. Predicates in mono-predicative constructions are verbs with the affix -lsa, which seems poly-functional in the Buryat language and can express the meaning of sociative causation. The research has shown that polyp-predicative constructions are expressed mainly through the matrix predicate tuhalha and the predicate actant in the form of a future participle with indicators of the dative or accusative case.

German Passives and English Benefactives

In both English benefactive constructions (John baked Mary a cake) and German kriegen/bekommen-passives (Er kriegte einen Stift geschenkt ‘He got a pen gifted’), the theme argument is accusative-marked but has no way of getting structural accusative case. In English benefactive constructions, this is because the beneficiary argument intervenes between the voice head and the theme, and in German kriegen/bekommen-passives, it is because there is no active voice head. This paper proposes that, in both languages, the applicative head introducing the beneficiary/recipient (more generally, the affectee argument), comes with an extra case feature that can license case on the theme argument. In English, this non-canonical accusative case feature comes with the regular applicative head introducing the beneficiary argument. In contrast, in German, it comes with a defective applicative head which introduces the recipient but is unable to assign to it the inherent dative case that normally comes with the Affectee theta-role. The paper offers a unified analysis of English and German double object constructions and also of German werden (‘be’) and kriegen/bekommen (‘get’)-passives.

The Development of Exceptional Case Marking in Romance with a Particular Focus on French

Abstract This paper traces the development of so-called Exceptional Case Marking (ECM) under perception, permissive and causative verbs in Romance. Synchronically, we can observe various patterns in the distribution of ECM complements under these verbs. In Portuguese and Spanish, ECM is often possible under all permissive and causative verbs, whereas in French, Catalan and Italian it is usually restricted to perception and permissive verbs. A detail that has not been much discussed is the fact that, for many speakers, ECM with a given verb is often restricted to contexts in which the embedded ‘subject’ is a clitic. Some speakers of Modern French display this pattern with the verb faire ‘make’, for example (Abeillé, Anne, Danièle Godard & Philip Miller. 1997. Les causatives en français : Un cas de compétition syntaxique. Langue Française 115. 62–74. https://doi.org/10.3406/lfr.1997.6222). In this paper, I claim that laisser ‘let’ probably also displayed this pattern in Middle French. In Old French, however, what appears to be the opposite pattern is observed. Following (Pearce, Elizabeth. 1990. Parameters in Old French syntax: Infinitival complements. Dordrecht: Kluwer), I attribute this to the morphological variability of dative case in Old French. I propose a case-based analysis of the clitic ECM pattern, whereby ECM complements in Romance are phases unlike clause union complements (see Sheehan, Michelle & Sonia Cyrino. 2018. Why do some ECM verbs resist passivisation? A phase-based explanation. In Sherry Hucklebridge & Max Nelson (eds.), Proceedings of NELS 48 (vol 3), 81–90. University of Massachusetts). Where such complements are embedded under light verbs, the Phase Impenetrability Condition (Chomsky, Noam. 2001. Derivation by phase. In Michael Kenstowicz (ed.), Ken hale: A life in language, 1–52. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press) prevents accusative case from being assigned to the lower subject except in instances of cliticization. When the matrix verb is reanalysed as a full verb, however, v becomes the case-assigning head and so ECM becomes generally available, regardless of the clitic/non-clitic status of the causee.

Shaping modern Indo-Aryan isoglosses

Abstract Since the pioneering paper by Emenau (1956) there have been many attempts (cf. Masica 1976, 2001; Ebert 2001; among many others) to select areal features which are shared among languages spoken in South Asia. However, there has been little consent on the number of such features and the possible direction of their spread. In this paper we are focusing on two selected isoglosses, namely alignment and constituent order. Both of them have been used to define the Indo-Aryan linguistic area: alignment is one of the key elements to distinguish western from eastern Indo-Aryan (Peterson 2017) and word order is one of the innovations which differentiates some of the “Outer” languages from “Inner” Indo-Aryan languages (Zoller 2017: 15). This article focuses on two languages which are said to determine these isoglosses: Awadhi and Kashmiri. Our study of Awadhi shows that the isogloss delineating ergative or accusative case marking zones is situated in the area where the so-called Eastern Hindi dialects (among them Awadhi) are spoken. As we will demonstrate, this specific isogloss is substantially supported by diachronic evidence. The second language under consideration, namely Kashmiri, is an example of an “Outer” language with a quite stable V2 feature. Both Awadhi and Kashmiri are compared with Pahari, a language branch which functions as a link between the two of them. Our comparison of Kashmiri with certain Western Pahari Himachali languages shows that there is no clear borderline between two language groups supported by word order. We conclude from these case studies that the study of isoglosses is by definition a study of fluid boundaries, and qualitative, historical studies of one language can prove or disprove hypotheses based on synchronic similarities between languages.

SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN ARABIC LANGUAGE

In Arabic, the verb takes a signifcant place among the parts of speech. Without knowing the morphological features of Arabic verbs, it is impossible to maser many of the rules of other parts of speech. This article is devoted to auxiliary verbs, which, together with the main verb, convey additional meaning to the action of the subject. In Arabic, the topic of auxiliary verbs has attracted the attention of linguiss from the early Middle Ages to the present. The mos recent sudies on this topic are collected in the works of Abbas Hasan, Musafa Galayini, Fuad Nemat, Antoine Dahdakh, Abu Bakr Abdul Ali. In this article, the issue of the semantic classifcation of auxiliary verbs is scientifcally subsantiated. According to it, verbs are divided into such semantic groups as: “verbs of being and becoming”, “beginning verbs”, “verbs denoting the proximity of an action”, “verbs denoting the likelihood of an action” and others that assign the above meanings to the main verb. “ ”كان و أخواتهاare the mos commonly used among others, they perform the function of a linking verb and require the setting of a nominal predicate in the accusative case. And in verb sentences, together with the verb-predicate, they form a complex temporary consruction. The verbs أفعال الشروعrequire the subject in the nominative and the predicate in the accusative and denote the beginning of the action of semantic verbs. The predicate after the verbs أفعال المةاربةcan be a whole sentence. Also, the verbs أفعال المقاربةcan be both semantic and auxiliary. In Arabic, auxiliary verbs are verbs of a wide variety of uses in a sentence. They not only determine the degree and sate, but also the time of action. During the research, it became known that there is another type of auxiliary verbs that demonsrate excitement, desire and feelings

Case System of Contemporary Czech and Tendency toward its Deflexivization

체코어는 슬라브어를 포함한 여러 굴절어 가운데 격 체계가 가장 복잡한 언어 중 하나로 잘 알려져 있다. 7개의 전통적인 체코어의 격 체계를 지탱하고 있는 개별 격들의 고유의 기능들은 언어 발달의 과정에서 사라지거나 다른 격으로 병합되는 등 일정한 탈굴절화 경향이 나타나고 있다. 이러한 경향은 굴절성이 높은 제(諸) 슬라브어에 전반적으로 나타나는 ‘언어의 분석화’라는 광의의 접근을 가능하게 한다. 체코어에서 매우 활발히 진행 중인 탈굴절화는 격 체계 변화의 구조화 즉 통사화의 경향과 밀접한 관련이 있다. 의미적 유표성이 현저한 생격, 여격, 호격, 조격과 같은 소위 ‘주변격(Peripheral Cases)’을 통사 구조상 핵심에 해당하는 주격이나 대격과 같은 구조격으로 대체하는 경향이 이에 해당하는데 그 중에서 생격으로 실현되던 술어의 직접목적어의 논항이 대격으로 대체되는 언어 체계의 변화가 이 연구의 논의의 주요 대상이다. 체코어 격 체계의 탈굴절화는 모국어 화자가 구어 환경에서 추구하는 언어표현의 명시성과 정확성 그리고 단순성과 통일성의 결과로 추정된다. 언어의 효율적 사용을 지향하는 이와 같은 화용론적 지배원리는 향후 체코어의 언어체계 내적 변화를 이끌어 갈 것이라고 예상한다.The Case system of Czech shows very complicated inflectional morphology in that it has 7 Case paradigms with various endings according to three genders and two numbers. Contemporary Czech demonstrates the tendency toward the deflexivization in the Case system: in the process of language development, relevant semantic features and syntactic roles to individual case disappear or are merged into other Case functions. In this respect, most Slavic languages are assumed to demonstrate this tendency as well in that analytical tendencies are the ones which are leading to a decrease of morphemes in a language. As a distinct example of deflexivization in Czech Case system, we discuss the pervasive use of the accusative case within the verb argument structures where the accusative argument substitutes for the bookish and archaic genitive argument in the object position. As another important point of deflexivization, I introduce the popular use of Genitive Case instead of the typical the Possessive adjectives to express the possession in Czech. Czech natives prefer this simpler form of Case ending than the Possessive adjectives. They are supported by the general tendency to use of more explicative and exact expression of the meaning and by concrete needs of such explicitness.