Absolute Standards Research Articles

Ethics, Moral Values and the Logic of Cultural Relativism.

At this scientific age, various societies of the world appear to be experiencing a wholesale bastardization of and the ensuing crisis of morality. Man seems to be induced into new attitudes of mind which finds expression in self – liberation, trivial banalities and the rejection of basic morality. Contemporary ethical theorists have come up with various theories of morality which seek to give explanation to this phenomenon. This paper examines the theory of cultural relativism which holds that all ethical truth is relative to a specified culture or society and argues that the theory suffers from an illogical conclusion. Looking at globalization from the perspective of ethics, this paper makes case for universalizable absolute moral standards, in a regulated sense, as a panacea for the contemporary global moral crisis. SOPHIA: An African Journal of Philosophy Vol. 8 (2) 2006: pp. 47-53

Evaluation of Video Technology for Monitoring of Multispecies Longline Catches

AbstractAt‐sea catch monitoring of the Alaskan longline fishery for Pacific halibut Hippoglossus stenolepis is insufficient. The International Pacific Halibut Commission (IPHC) conducted studies in 2002 and 2004 comparing catch composition data from electronic monitoring (EM) systems to those of at‐sea observers. The EM systems use automated data loggers linked to digital video cameras, a transducer on shipboard hydraulic systems, and a global positioning system receiver. The goal of both studies was to determine whether EM technologies could provide precise and verifiable catch composition data on commercial longline vessels to supplement and complement the data collected by fisheries observers. The EM video analyst's catch data were similar to the observers' data in the 2002 study; however, the video analyst recorded fewer fish for 7 of the 17 species categories investigated. In 2004, the IPHC employed EM technology in another study incorporating recommendations from the 2002 study, including improved camera configurations. The video analyst's data showed increased agreement with the observer data. However, the observers recorded slightly fewer individuals of some species categories, opposite the findings of the 2002 study. This change suggests that incorporating the technology recommendations enhanced the video analyst's accuracy relative to the observer data. Our analysis also highlights the fact that data provided by human observers have their own suite of errors and that the comparisons between EM and observers have no absolute standard of reference. The findings indicate that EM technology can effectively address the lack of catch composition data in the Pacific halibut and other hook‐and‐line fisheries in Alaska.

The effective use of questionnaires in clinical practice

, Taylor andMcPherson report using a form of item-response theory(IRT) called Rasch analysis to evaluate the Health Assess-ment Questionnaire (HAQ) disability index and the ShortForm 36 (SF-36) physical function score (1). Methods sim-ilar to Rasch analysis were used to develop scores for theScholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), an evaluation of academicskills used in college admissions evaluations that is famil-iar to US readers. One of the underlying theorems of IRT isthat if you can answer a difficult question, you can alsoanswer (probabilistically) all easier questions, and, there-fore, questions can be ranked by difficulty. One might rankmathematic ability as ordered by addition, subtraction,multiplication,division,algebra,calculus,etc.Inaddition,Rasch analysis can assign a difficulty score to each item(question). With such information, the level of academicskill can be measured. Assessments such as the SAT haveto be reliable. Reliability means that, for example, if youadminister the SAT twice, perhaps a month apart, you willget very similar results. The variability between the 2administration results is a measure of test reliability, andcan be expressed as a correlation coefficient. The reliabil-ity of SAT tests is approximately 0.90 (2).It is useful to think of disability assessment as beingsimilar to academic skills assessment. Using Rasch analy-sis, one can assign difficulty scores to individual disabilityassessment questions (3,4). For example, it is easier to lifta cup to your mouth or walk on flat ground than it is to dooutside work or walk 2 miles. If the disability scale isconstructed correctly, disability can be measured on alinear continuous scale, just as one would use a thermom-eter to measure body temperature.Practically,however,questionnaires(andweextendthisdiscussion to visual analog scales for pain, etc.) deviatesignificantly from the ideal. Although the SAT actuallytests academic ability, clinical questionnaires test percep-tion of functional ability or pain. Given the same painfulstimulus, patients will differ in their assessments of theseverity of pain. Similarly, people with the same level ofphysical ability will differ in their assessment of theirphysical ability.Therefore, the first problem with clinical assessments isthat there is no absolute standard. However, we can as-sume that each person has his or her own innate, internalstandard, and that standard is usually not too distant fromthe mean of all patients. Clinicians know that some pa-tients are high reporters of pain and disability while othersare low reporters, and they make mental adjustmentsbased on such facts. This wavering standard, while ofconsiderable importance, defines interpretability, but doesnot have anything to do with reliability. Interpretability isa keystone of clinical evaluations, but not of clinical trialsor blind evaluation of scores.The second problem with questionnaire assessments isthat they most often have poor reliability. This is not onlyrelated to HAQ scores (r 0.85) or pain scores (r 0.7–0.8), but also to physician’s global, joint tendernessand swelling counts (r 0.8), and to the Disease ActivityScore (DAS) (r 0.8) (5–7). From reliability we canestimate the minimal detectable change (MDC), also calledthe reliable change or the smallest real difference (8). Forthe technically minded, the MDC SEM 1.96 2,where the SEM SD 1 reliability. The consequenceof this is that, given 2 measurements in an individualpatient, we can only say with confidence that differencesbetween 2 assessments that are equal to or exceed 0.75for HAQ, 2.0 for DAS, and 3.5 for VAS pain are statis-tically significant. The reason that the necessary differ-ences are so great is that the uncertainty (reliability esti-mate) is applied not to the change score but to each of the2 test measurements.There are 3 settings in which reliability is important:clinical trials in groups of patients, blind assessments inindividual patients, and informed assessments in clinicpatients. In clinical trials, low reliability can be overcomeby increasing sample size. Blind assessments occur whenone tries to interpret 2 scores (i.e., before and after treat-ment) without the use of additional information. Suchassessments are made by insurance companies, third-partyproviders, and regulatory authorities, among others, to see

Fluorescence Quantum Yields and Their Relation to Lifetimes of Rhodamine 6G and Fluorescein in Nine Solvents: Improved Absolute Standards for Quantum Yields¶

Fluorescence Quantum Yields and Their Relation to Lifetimes of Rhodamine 6G and Fluorescein in Nine Solvents: Improved Absolute Standards for Quantum Yields¶

Development of a new high-stability transfer standard based on resonant silicon gauges for the range 100 Pa to 130 kPa

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has developed a new transfer standard capable of absolute-mode and differential-mode operation in the range 100 Pa to 130 kPa. This newly built transfer standard relies on resonant silicon gauges (RSGs) of the same type used to provide superior long-term calibration stability in NIST piloted international key comparisons CCM.P-K4 and CCM.P-K5, which covered absolute and differential pressure standards pressures up to 1 kPa (Miiller et al 2002 Metrologia 39 Tech. Suppl. 07001 and 07002). The new transfer standard package differs from the previous packages in that it fully covers the atmospheric pressure range (100 Pa to 130 kPa). This was made possible by the addition of a pair of 130 kPa RSGs to complement a pair of 10 kPa RSGs. The RSG transfer standard package has demonstrated good short-term zero stability and pressure resolution, and has demonstrated long-term instability of only a few ppm at 130 kPa, increasing to 0.01% at 100 Pa. The long-term instability is nominally commensurate with that associated with piston gauge standards, which are limited to pressures of nominally 10 kPa and higher. The main advantage of the new package is that it operates easily at lower pressures than piston gauges while still covering the atmospheric pressure range 100 Pa to 130 kPa.

Twin paradox on the photon sphere

We consider another version of the twin paradox. The twins move along the same circular free photon path around the Schwarzschild center. In this case, despite their different velocities, all twins have the same nonzero acceleration. On the circular photon path, the symmetry between the twins situations is broken not by acceleration (as it is in the case of the classic twin paradox), but by the existence of an absolute standard of rest (timelike Killing vector). The twin with the higher velocity with respect to the standard of rest is younger on reunion. This closely resembles the case of periodic motions in compact (nontrivial topology) three-dimensional (3D) space recently considered in the context of the twin paradox by Barrow and Levin [Phys. Rev. A 63, 044104 (2001)], except that in that paper accelerations of all twins were equal to zero and that, in the case considered here, the 3D space has trivial topology.

Preoperative Chemoradiation for the Treatment of Locoregional Esophageal Cancer: The Standard of Care?

Esophageal cancer has one of the highest mortality rates among patients with solid tumors. Surgical resection has been a cornerstone of treatment for localized esophageal cancer, but recently treatment strategies have become more aggressive and now include chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery. Two meta-analyses confirmed a survival benefit at 3 years from neoadjuvant concurrent chemoradiation without compromising the ability to undergo surgical resection and without an increase in peri-operative mortality negating the benefit seen. Some countries prefer to use pre-operative chemotherapy, although this is not standard in the United States. Patients who undergo initial esophagectomy with no pre-operative treatment may benefit from post-operative adjuvant chemoradiation depending on the final pathologic staging. Ultimately, treatment planning should include a multi-disciplinary evaluation of the patient, with consideration of available treatment options and their risks and benefits. There is no absolute standard that is best for all patients; rather, the physician and patient working in concert eventually determine which of several reasonable treatment options is best suited for that individual patient.

Enhancing self-regulation of practice: the influence of graphing and self-evaluative standards

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of graphing of self-recorded outcomes and self-evaluative standards on the acquisition of a motoric skill with 70 college students. It was postulated that students who were provided with graduated self-evaluative standards would surpass those who were provided with absolute standards or no standards (control) in both motoric skill and in motivational beliefs (i.e., self-efficacy, attributions, and self-satisfaction). Regarding graphing of self-recorded outcomes, it was hypothesized that students who graphed their results visually would show higher dart skill and stronger motivational beliefs than participants who did not graph their results. Support was found for these hypotheses. The implications of findings of this study were discussed for instructors in terms of how the effects of self-directed practice can be enhanced.

Combinational numeral fingerprint spectra of Glycyrrhiza and analysis of common peak ratio invariableness in HPLC

To overcome the instability of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) fingerprint spectra (FPS) and to build up absolute identification standard of TCM, the construction method of combinational numeral fingerprint spectra (CNFPS) was set up. The analysis of invariableness based on CNFPS was carried out. It can be used as absolute quantitative standard to identify the difference of TCM samples. According to this method, the HPLC FPS of components extracted from Glycyrrhiza root samples by ethanol was analyzed. Stable results and accurate quality evaluation were obtained perfectly. The common peak ratio invariableness is an absolute standard in identifying TCM samples, which is better than the similarity method of the FPS.

A Research Agenda for International Corporate Social Responsibility

This paper builds on a recent article by Elisabet Garriga and Domenec Mele, in which they provided an overview of the main approaches in current CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) research. It applies their general approach to CSR research aimed specifically at the international level, and concludes that the research agenda in this field may usefully divided into four main questions. First, how does the process of establishing absolute (also ‘international’ or ‘universal’) standards for social and environmental issues – supposedly related to the objectives and values of developing societies – affect business behaviour? Second, under which conditions can profit maximisation by Western firms lead to responsible business behaviour in developing countries, and under which conditions does such behaviour contribute to profit maximisation? Third, what is the relevance of societal demands on business behaviour related to developing countries, and what is the legitimacy of these demands? Fourth, under which conditions can Western-based businesses make a positive contribution to local communities in developing countries?

Invited commentary

Although several treatment methodologies have been used to manage esophageal perforations, there is no absolute standard of care. Surgical intervention has been the traditional and most popular management approach. It is well known that early intervention provides the best outcome. Mortality for patients with iatrogenic or spontaneous perforations ranges from 0% to 11%. Delays in treatment are associated with heightened complications and with mortality that can exceed 50%. Leak rates after surgical repair are common, ranging from 0% to more than 50% for patients who have delays in treatment, particularly in barogenic perforations.

Are psychodynamic and psychoanalytic therapies effective? A review of empirical data

There is a need for empirical outcome research in psychodynamic and psychoanalytic therapy. However, both the approach of empirically supported therapies (EST) and the procedures of evidence‐based medicine (EBM) have severe limitations making randomised controlled trials (RCTs) an absolute standard. After a critical discussion of this approach, the author reviews the empirical evidence for the efficacy of psychodynamic psychotherapy in specific psychiatric disorders. The review aims to identify for which psychiatric disorders RCTs of specific models of psychodynamic psychotherapy are available and for which they are lacking, thus providing a basis for planning further research. In addition, results of process research of psychodynamic psychotherapy are presented. As the methodology of RCTs is not appropriate for psychoanalytic therapy, effectiveness studies of psychoanalytic therapy are reviewed as well. Studies of psychodynamic psychotherapy published between 1960 and 2004 were identifed by a computerised search using Medline, PsycINFO and Current Contents. In addition, textbooks and journal articles were used. Twenty‐two RCTs were identifed of which 64% had not been included in the 1998 report by Chambless and Hollon. According to the results, for the following psychiatric disorders at least one RCT providing evidence for the efficacy of psychodynamic psychotherapy was identifed: depressive disorders (4 RCTs), anxiety disorders (1 RCT), post‐traumatic stress disorder (1 RCT), somatoform disorder (4 RCTs), bulimia nervosa (3 RCTs), anorexia nervosa (2 RCTs), borderline personality disorder (2 RCTs), Cluster C personality disorder (1 RCT), and substance‐related disorders (4 RCTs). According to results of process research, outcome in psychodynamic psychotherapy is related to the competent delivery of therapeutic techniques and to the development of a therapeutic alliance. With regard to psychoanalytic therapy, controlled quasi‐experimental effectiveness studies provide evidence that psychoanalytic therapy is (1) more effective than no treatment or treatment as usual, and (2) more effective than shorter forms of psychodynamic therapy. Conclusions are drawn for future research.

The Cold War in the Plays of Peter Howard

Peter Howard was the worldwide leader of the Moral Re-Armament movement from 1961–65. After 1945 Moral Re-Armament sought to express traditional religious ideas in the idiom of the post-war world, and it made much use of theatre. This article explores Howard's ideas with particular references to his plays. Howard saw the Cold War from a spiritual perspective. Howard saw the Cold War from a spiritual perspective. In his view, the roots of political conflict were often to be found in dishonest relationships and moral compromises in the lives of individuals, as well as in a refusal to follow God's will. This applied to people both in the East and the West. Howard thus believed that both sides in the Cold War faced a common need for spiritual renewal. In this sense, Howard's interpretation of the East-West conflict was not of a Manichaean form; although committed to Western democratic principles, he did not believe that good and evil could be simply identified with the policies or actions of the different sides. In his view, everybody and every nation needed to turn to God and absolute moral standards as a way out of the global impasse.

Novel use of Single X-Ray Absorptiometry for Measuring Breast Density

Breast density is one of the strongest known breast cancer risk factors. Breast density has primarily been measured by either categorical scores of the proportion of opacity on a screening mammogram or as a ratio of the delineated dense area to the total breast area on a mammogram. These methods are limited by their subjectivity, their lack of absolute reference standards, and lack of automation for clinical use. We present a novel automated method for measuring breast composition we call Breast Compositional Density measured using single X-ray absorptiometry techniques, or BD(SXA). BD(SXA) measures breast compositional density by comparing the opacity on the mammogram to two reference standards imaged with each breast. We present the mathematical derivation of BD(SXA), methods for correcting for radiographic nonuniformity in the mammogram, and in vitro measures of accuracy and repeatability. Using phantoms, BD(SXA) has been shown to have a long-term repeatability of better than 2% for a breast composition range of 0 to 100% fibroglandular density.

Molecular Transitions as Medium-Precision Wavelength Standards for Optical Communication

Molecular vibration-rotation transitions in overtone or combination bands are well suited as absolute wavelength standards throughout the wavelength range used for optical communication. In this paper, we describe two different implementations. In the first, radiation from a superluminescent diode is sent through a cell containing H/sup 13/CN. This provides the spectrum with a characteristic signature from absorption in the 2/spl nu//sub 3/ overtone band, and allows for calibration in the 1530-1560 nm range. In the second implementation, radiation from a distributed feedback (DFB) fiber laser is locked to a Doppler broadened absorption line at 1548.8193 nm in the /spl nu//sub 1/+/spl nu//sub 3/ combination band of /sup 13/C/sub 2/H/sub 2/. The resulting standard has a relative Allan deviation of less than 10/sup -8/ beyond 100 s of integration time, and the signal can be disseminated through optical networks without degradation in stability. A novel feature of the fiber laser is all thermal control of the wavelength through resistive heating of a thin-film gold coating.

Treatment Guidelines for Children and Adolescents With Bipolar Disorder

Clinicians who treat children and adolescents with bipolar disorder desperately need current treatment guidelines. These guidelines were developed by expert consensus and a review of the extant literature about the diagnosis and treatment of pediatric bipolar disorders. The four sections of these guidelines include diagnosis, comorbidity, acute treatment, and maintenance treatment. These guidelines are not intended to serve as an absolute standard of medical or psychological care but rather to serve as clinically useful guidelines for evaluation and treatment that can be used in the care of children and adolescents with bipolar disorder. These guidelines are subject to change as our evidence base increases and practice patterns evolve.

The Country-Level Income Structure of the World-Economy

World-systems sociologists have long recognized a three-tier structure in the world-economy, which comprises peripheral, semi-peripheral, and core groups of countries. This paper introduces a new database tool for analyzing this structure of the world-economy in terms of national income, the Structure of the World-Economy (SWE) analytical tool. It can be used to chart the structure of the world-economy in terms of income per capita for any year from 1960-2000 based on parameters selected by the user. Results confirm the existence of a three-tier structure of the world-economy that is relatively stable over the period for which data are available. A continuous set of benchmarks for the boundary points separating zones of the world-economy are reported for the period 1975–2002, along with a brief analysis of national mobility across those boundaries. Only seventeen countries (out of 103) made lasting transitions between zones of the world-economy over the study period, mostly due to changes in the prices of natural resources. The results of this study suggest that development policy formation should focus more on the attainable goal of transitioning countries from the periphery to the semiperiphery of the world-economy, and less on achieving an absolute standard of “developed” or core country status.

Do students have sufficient knowledge of clinical anatomy?

Comparisons of anatomy knowledge levels of students from various curricula show either no differences or small differences to the detriment of innovative schools. To pass judgement on the general level of students' anatomy knowledge, we need an absolute standard. The purpose of this study was to compare students' levels of anatomy knowledge as measured by a case-based anatomy test with standards set by different groups of experts. A modified Angoff procedure was used to establish an absolute standard against which the students' results could be evaluated. Four panels of 9 anatomists, 7 clinicians, 9 recent graduates and 9 Year 4 students, respectively, judged 107 items of an anatomy test. The students' results on these items were compared with the standards obtained by the panels. If the standard established by the panel of Year 4 students was used, 64% of the students would fail the test. The standards established by the anatomists, clinicians and recent graduates would yield failure rates of 42%, 58% and 26%, respectively. According to the panels' standards, many students did not know enough about anatomy. The high expectations that the Year 4 students appeared to have of their peers may contribute to students' uncertainty about their level of anatomy knowledge.

The Impact of the EU Air Quality Standards on the Planning and Authorisation of Large Scale Infrastructure Projects in the Netherlands

AbstractThe implementation of the first Daughter Directive on Air Quality had a considerable effect on decision-making concerning large scale infrastructure projects. It was the Dutch administrative court that enforced the air quality standards in the Netherlands by ruling that the limit values are absolute standards to be applied at all levels of decision-making. Faced with the consequences of this interpretation the Dutch government tried to soften the economic and social effects of the court's policy. This analysis of the debate that followed illustrates the two opposing approaches. The first approach is to interpret EC air quality standards literally, meaning that the limit values have to be applied by all competent authorities. Those supporting the second approach argue that the limit values must be attained, in the first place, by national measures dealing with the sources of pollution, making use of technical solutions. The Dutch government has shifted slightly from the first to the second approach, as is clear from the Air Quality Order of 2005. However, it remains doubtful whether this will be sufficient to lift the current deadlock on infrastructure projects and attain the environmental limit values.

Quantitation of Zap-70 Expression in B-CLLCells Employing a Novel Flow Cytometry Analysis Method.

IgVH mutational status and molecular cytogenetics have dramatically improved the ability to predict the prognosis of CLL patients. These tests, however, are highly sophisticated, complex and costly for routine use. ZAP-70, a syk family tyrosine kinase normally expressed in T cells, is a newly described marker which correlates with clinical progression and shorter survival in CLL. A flow cytometry assay to detect ZAP-70 described by Crespo et al (1), appears to be the simplest approach for routine clinical stratification in B-CLL. It is highly informative, and has a strong correlation between the expression of ZAP-70 in CLL cells and clinical outcome. However, in this analysis there are some technical aspects that should be improved to enable it to be standardized as a routine flow cytometry assay. ZAP-70 expression in B-CLL cells is not quantitative but assessed relative to its expression in the T- and NK cells (CD3+, CD56+). This approach can be problematic at times, as ZAP-70 levels in T cells vary in CLL patients as well as in normal controls, probably due to its up regulation following activation. An additional quandary in this assay is that all results are recorded relative to the subjectively delineated T-cell gate. Accordingly, small changes in expression in the T cells can significantly alter the results obtained in some B-CLL samples. In this study we aimed to improve the resolution of the assay by performing a quantitative analysis of ZAP-70 expression within the B-CLL cell population which is uncoupled from T cells. Blood samples were stained by the method described by Crespo et al (1) and ZAP 70 levels in B cell populations in CLL patients (CD19+CD5+) and in healthy volunteers (CD19+) were determined using a standard curve generated by an absolute fluorescent standard of FITC high levels beads with a range of 50–2000 x103 molecules of equivalent soluble fluorochrome (MESF) units per microsphere. Quantitation of expression levels were generated using Quick Cal V2.2 via www.bangslab.com. (Bangs laboratories). Using this analysis system the mean expression levels of ZAP 70 were calculated in healthy B cells (n=11) to be 11,177±1812 MESF units while in CLL (n=36) the mean value was >143,000 MESF units. To determine the reliability of this new method and its clinical relevance we compared our results to data generated using the analysis method of Crespo et al (1). We found a significant correlation between the two methods (r2 = 0.7558). Using ROC curve analysis with maximum sensitivity and specificity, our minimum positive value was found to be 46,700 MESF, with >95% sensitivity at 27,000 MESF and >92% specificity at 67,000 MESF and a Pearson correlation of 0.877 (P<0.0005). We conclude that this assay can provide a more reproducible and reliable analysis of Zap-70 expression in B-CLL, which is easily standardized. This analysis is highly specific as it is quantitative, not subjective and uncoupled from T cell activation in the sample.