Abaxial Part Research Articles

The effect of palm oil (Elaeis guineensis Jacq) solid waste on the stomatal density and chlorophyll content of the pepper (Piper nigrum L.)

This study investigates the impact of palm oil (Elaeis guineensis Jacq) solid waste on stomatal density and chlorophyll content in pepper plants (Piper nigrum L.). Employing a Randomized Block Design (RBD) comprising four treatments and five replications, the research used the mixed of the waste and soil with the ratios: P0 (1 kg soil, control), P1 (333 g palm oil solid waste and 666 g soil, 1:2 ratio), P2 (500 g soil and 500 g palm oil solid waste, 1:1 ratio), and P3 (666 g palm oil solid waste and 333 g soil, 2:1 ratio). Our findings indicate that the stomatal density in the adaxial part of pepper’s leaves was highest in treatment P2, whereas stomatal density in the abaxial part was highest in treatment P3. Additionally, the highest chlorophyll a content was observed in treatment P2, while chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll content were highest in treatment P3. These results underscore the complex interplay between waste composition and plant physiological responses.

Rekaman baru Scopellaria marginata (Cucurbitaceae) dari Malang, Jawa Timur, Indonesia

Scopellaria is a genus in Cucurbitaceae which only consists of two species, namely S. diversiflora and S. marginata. Both types have never been reported before in the East Java region. This study aimed to characterize naturalized Scopellaria marginata in Malang, East Java. Scopellaria marginata reported as new record for East Java, Indonesia with scarbid-hairy stems; denticulate leaf edges, rough-hairy on the adaxial leaves and coarsely hairy on abaxial parts; fruit shape varied, such as round (globose), oval (elliptic), and fusiform; seed size 3.0-4.4 mm, whitish, and edges distinctly square-margined. This species was found climbing on other plants and creeping above ground. Its description and distribution of this species are presented in this paper.

Anatomical, morphological and physiological leaf characters of black betel (Piper betle L. var. nigra) in varying natural and man-made habitats

Abstract. Kuswandi PC, Ariyanti NA, Yunus MF, Amri CNAC. 2023. Anatomical, morphological and physiological leaf characters of black betel (Piper betleL. var. nigra) in varying natural and man-made habitats. Biodiversitas 24: 3236-3244. Piper betle L. var. nigra or black betel (known as Sirih hitam in Indonesia) contains valuable secondary metabolites, such as alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, phenols, carotenoids, steroids and terpenoids. Black betel leaf extract has been shown to have antimicrobial activity thus there is a prospect to be developed as a promising herbal plant. Nevertheless, little information is available about its development as a medicinal plant. This research studies the influence of different habitats on several characters of black betel leaves with the aim to understand the suitable environmental conditions for the optimum growth of black betel plants. We used a survey method and random sampling of black betel leaves in four locations in Java Island, Indonesia, namely Banyuwangi which represents natural habitat, and Karanganyar, Ngaglik and Pakem which represent man-made habitats. Measurements of temperature, humidity, soil moisture and light intensity were carried out at each location. Analyses of leaf area, leaf water content, total leaf chlorophyll content and flavonoid content were undertaken and statistically analyzed using SPSS software. Leaf transverse sections were also observed. The results showed that the environmental parameters differed in the four locations. Leaves samples from the natural habitat in Banyuwangi were significantly different (P<0.05) from the three man-made habitats for chlorophyll and flavonoid content. For water content, significant difference was only for Banyuwangi samples with those from Karanganyar and Pakem. For leaf area, significant difference was only found between the Banyuwangi samples and Karanganyar. Observations on the transverse cross section of midrib of black betel leaves from the four locations showed structures that are generally found in Piper betle species, namely the presence of an epidermal layer, trichomes in the abaxial part of the leaf, several layers of the hypodermis, visible vascular tissue and the presence of secretion cells. There were several differences in the leaf anatomy such as greater number of trichomes on the leaves from Karanganyar, the secretory cells that were more visible in the leaves from Ngaglik and Banyuwangi and the sclerenchymal tissue that was more visible in the leaves from Banyuwangi. Such differences are likely influenced by variations in environmental parameters thus showing that the man-made habitat in the Karanganyar location can affect leaves characters similar to black betel plant grown in its natural habitat in Banyuwangi.

Seed treatment with chlormequat chloride improves the physiological and biochemical characteristics of Brassica napus L. under salt stress

BackgroundSalinity is a global and increasing problem in agriculture. The response of Brassica napus L. (canola or oilseed rape) to salinity and the possible role of chlormequat chloride (CCC) as a seed primer in improving salt tolerance were investigated in a pot experiment. The experiment consisted of four salinities (0, 0.5, 1 and 1.5 g NaCl kg−1 soil) and four CCC concentrations (0, 250, 500 and 750 mg L − 1) in a complete randomised block design with three replications. ResultsSalt stress decreased relative water content (RWC), stomatal conductance, stomatal density, photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll, potassium and calcium content, K/Na, Ca/Na ratio and seed yield, but increased leaf temperature, intercellular CO2 concentration, proline, electrolyte leakage, stomatal area and sodium content. Application of CCC, especially 500 and 750 mg L − 1, improved all measured traits and Ca and K contents. The increase in K and Ca content and the simultaneous decrease in Na content indicate improved ion selectivity in plants treated with CCC. Stomatal density was reduced by salt stress, while higher concentrations of CCC increased the number of stomata, especially in the abaxial part, thus reducing the adaxial/abaxial stomatal number ratio. Reduced stomatal number due to salt stress increased the resistance of canola to salt stress by preventing transpiration rate and can be considered as a stress avoidance and water saving mechanism in canola. There is no significant difference in all measured traits between non-saline and mild saline stress, but seed yield decreased at this stress level compared to the control condition. ConclusionThe results suggest that the application of CCC increased the photosynthetic, physiological, and biochemical attributes and seed yield of canola plants. The data show that 500 and 750 mg CCC L − 1 in saline soils up to 10.5 dS m − 1 can improve yield and physiological parameters of canola.

Morphological and Genetic Analysis of Momordica cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng. (Gac) from Different Accessions in Malaysia

Momordica cochinchinensis or gac fruit is a 'superfruit' that is well-known in Vietnam. Gac is an orange fruit that is ovoid in shape and has a soft spiny texture. In Malaysia, gac fruit is a new and less known plant. This study aimed to characterize gac fruit using morphological analysis involving both vegetative and reproductive parts and to characterize the genetic diversity in gac fruit by using Inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) analysis. Four different gac accessions were collected from different areas (Kota Damansara (Selangor), Melaka Tengah (Melaka), Hulu Langat (Selangor) and Kuantan (Pahang)) were cultivated under tropical conditions in Kuantan, Pahang. The gac accessions showed differences in morphological characters. Generally, the gac fruits were reddish-orange in colour, the leaf was dark green on the adaxial part and light green on the abaxial part, and the female and male flower was light yellow and white in color. The fruit weight ranged from 193.72 g (GD) to 334.70 g (GH) with varied shapes and spike density. DNA extraction was following the CTAB method. All 30 primers showed high levels of polymorphism (83%) and the polymorphism information content (PIC) with the mean of 0.48. Nei's genetic distance coefficient ranged between 0.27 and 0.6 with the mean value of 0.41. Dendrogram based on UPGMA analysis grouped the four gac accessions into two main groups. Cluster I consisted of accession GD, GM and GH while cluster II consisted of only GX. Results from both morphological and molecular analysis showed genetic diversities in all four gac fruits studied.

Leaf wettability and plant surface water storage for common wetland species of the Biebrza peatlands (northeast Poland)

Abstract Wetlands play a crucial role in buffering the effects of climate change. At the same time, they are one of the most endangered ecosystems on the globe. The knowledge of the water cycle and energy exchange is crucial for the practical preservation and exploiting their capabilities. Leaf wettability is an important parameter characterising the plant's ability to retain water on its surface, and is linked to the ecosystems' hydrological and ecological functioning. This research investigates the relationship between leaves' wettability based on contact angle measurements and water storage capacity (interception) for wetland vegetation. We performed the study for ten common plant species collected from Biebrza peatlands (Poland). We used CAM100 goniometer for the wetting contact angle measurements on the leaves' surface, and the weighing method for the plant surface water storage determination. The wetland plants' initial contact angle values ranged from 64.7° to 139.5° and 62.4° to 134.0° for the leaves' adaxial and abaxial parts, respectively. The average plant surface water storage was equal to 0.31 g·g−1, and values ranged from 0.09 to 0.76 g·g−1. The leaf hydrophobicity contributes to the amount of retained water. With increasing average contact angle, the amount of water retained on the plant decreased.

Changes in Stomatal Properties of Safflower Cultivars Under Salinity

The stomatal characteristics in the leaves play a key role to adapt to several abiotic stresses such as drought, heat, and salinity. This study was conducted at the Seed Science and Technology Laboratory, Eskişehir Osmangazi University in 2022 in order to examine the abaxial and adaxial stomatal properties of 9 safflower cultivars (Dinçer 5-18-1, Remzibey-05, Balcı, Yekta, Linas, Olas, Olein, Safir, and Zirkon) under salt stress (100 mM NaCl). The density, width, length, size, and index of the stomata were measured. The data was analyzed by a two-factor factorial in completely randomized design. The results showed that significant differences for all stomatal features of the safflower cultivars were determined. The stomata density changed with safflower cultivars between 143 and 57 number mm-2 and stomata size was observed as 510-698 µm2. The number of abaxial stomata was higher than the adaxial part of leaves and the stomatal density on the abaxial part of six safflower cultivars (Remzibey-05, Balcı, Yekta, Olas, Olein, and Safir) was decreased by salinity. In addition, abnormal stomata were observed in salt-affected cultivars of Dinçer 5-18-1, Remzibey-05, Yekta, Olein, and Zirkon. The stomata density mainly depended on genetic factors, suggesting that it should be used for separating safflower cultivars, but they declined considerably by salinity. It was concluded that stomatal properties should be considered to clarify the salt tolerance of safflower genotypes.

Morphological Characterization of Gac Fruit (Momordica cochinchinensis SPRENG) Based on Qualitative and Quantitative Traits

Momordica cochinchinensis is a fruit which originated from South-East Asia and it is a newly introduced crop in Malaysia. It is a superfruit with high nutritional and medicinal properties. However, being an introduced crop, gac fruit is a less-known fruit in Malaysia. A study was conducted in IIUM, Kuantan Pahang involving a total of four gac fruit accessions. The objective of this study was to characterize gac fruit morphology involving qualitative and quantitative morphological traits. Completely randomized design with five replications was used. Based on qualitative traits, variations were observed in parameters such as leaf color, leaf venation, leaf apices, leaf bases, fruit shape and spike density. Generally, the gac fruits were reddish-orange in color, the leaf was dark green on the adaxial part and light green on the abaxial part, and the female and male flower was light yellow and white in color. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences (P<0.05) among accessions in all quantitative traits evaluated. The fruit weight ranged from 193.72 g (GD) to 334.70 g (GH), fruit length ranged from 9.42 cm (GD) to 12.13 cm (GH), leaf size ranged from 218.43 cm2 (GD) to 337.96 cm2 (GM) and seed weight ranged from 1.43g (GM) to 3.94g (GX). Overall, the study revealed significant morphological differences among the accessions evaluated, indicating genotypic diversity that can be incorporated into breeding programs.

Distribuição espacial, índices ecológicos e interações de artrópodes em plantas de Sapindus saponaria (Sapindaceae)

Sapindus saponaria L. (Sapindaceae) is a pioneer species used in programs to recover degraded areas. The trees also assist in the pest control of some insects due to the composition of saponins on their leaves. In addition, these chemical components are important to pharmaceutical product production. The objective was to evaluate the impact of spatial distribution, indices and ecological relationship of arthropods on S. saponaria leaves to preserve the balance of biodiversity. Aggregated distribution of arthropods was observed; the numbers of phytophagous arthropods were higher on the adaxial leaf face than on the abaxial part. Only Aleyrodidae (Hemiptera) had a higher presence on the abaxial leaf face of S. saponaria saplings. Abundance, diversity, and species richness of natural enemies correlated positively with phytophagous and pollinators insects. On the other hand, the number of Lyriomyza sp. mines correlated negatively with Pseudomyrmex termitarius (Smith) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). All this information can assist and guide integrated pest management programs.

Ecotype-specific blockage of tasiARF production by two different RNA viruses in Arabidopsis.

Arabidopsis thaliana is one of the most studied model organisms of plant biology with hundreds of geographical variants called ecotypes. One might expect that this enormous genetic variety could result in differential response to pathogens. Indeed, we observed previously that the Bur ecotype develops much more severe symptoms (upward curling leaves and wavy leaf margins) upon infection with two positive-strand RNA viruses of different families (turnip vein-clearing virus, TVCV, and turnip mosaic virus, TuMV). To find the genes potentially responsible for the ecotype-specific response, we performed a differential expression analysis of the mRNA and sRNA pools of TVCV and TuMV-infected Bur and Col plants along with the corresponding mock controls. We focused on the genes and sRNAs that showed an induced or reduced expression selectively in the Bur virus samples in both virus series. We found that the two ecotypes respond to the viral infection differently, yet both viruses selectively block the production of the TAS3-derived small RNA specimen called tasiARF only in the virus-infected Bur plants. The tasiARF normally forms a gradient through the adaxial and abaxial parts of the leaf (being more abundant in the adaxial part) and post-transcriptionally regulates ARF4, a major leaf polarity determinant in plants. The lack of tasiARF-mediated silencing could lead to an ectopically expressed ARF4 in the adaxial part of the leaf where the misregulation of auxin-dependent signaling would result in an irregular growth of the leaf blade manifesting as upward curling leaf and wavy leaf margin. QTL mapping using Recombinant Inbred Lines (RILs) suggests that the observed symptoms are the result of a multigenic interaction that allows the symptoms to develop only in the Bur ecotype. The particular nature of genetic differences leading to the ecotype-specific symptoms remains obscure and needs further study.

Air-assisted spraying and electrically charged droplets for Bemisia tabaci control in soybeans.

The improvement of surface coverage and plant protection products deposition can be obtained by electrifying droplets, which are strongly attracted by plants, including the abaxial part of the leaves. Moreover, air assistance improves droplet penetration into the crop canopy, especially in the lower third of the plants. These technologies can help control soybean (Glycine max) whitefly, which preferentially lodges on the abaxial surface of the leaves. Thus, this study aimed to assess the effect of air-assisted spraying and electrically charged droplets to control whitefly in soybean, besides assessing surface coverage, plant protection product deposition, droplet size, and crop yield. Droplet electrification and air assistance did not change droplet size and uniformity classified as Fine. Surface coverage was not enhanced using air assistance and electrically charged droplets, where maximum coverage in the middle third of the plants was 4.55%. The results were not significant for spray plant protection products deposition. The number of nymphs per leaflet in the 2019/20 growing season was reduced with the used technologies, reducing from 10.9 to 3.0 nymphs per leaflet in the application with air-assisted and charged droplets, but not enough to differ from the untreated. On the other hand, the reduction was significant from the first assessment in the 2020/21 growing season. Air-assisted spraying plus electrically charged droplets, under the conditions of this experiment which corresponds to the application carried out in production areas, were not effective to affect whitefly control and soybean yield in comparison to the conventional application method. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Variations in Structure among Androecia and Floral Nectaries in the Inverted Repeat-Lacking Clade (Leguminosae: Papilionoideae).

The vast majority of highly valuable species of the Leguminosae in temperate latitudes belong to the Inverted Repeat-Lacking Clade (IRLC). Despite having a generally conserved monosymmetric floral morphology, members of this group are remarkable with a pronounced diversity of floral sizes, modes of staminal fusion, and pollination strategies. This paper examined androecia and floral nectaries (FNs) in selected genera of the IRLC. External morphology was investigated using stereomicroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. In some cases, the pattern of staminal fusion was additionally examined in transverse sections using light microscopy. Androecia of all selected genera fell into one of four types, viz., monadelphous, pseudomonadelphous, diadelphous or diadelphous reduced (with inner stamens converted into sterile staminodes). However, there was significant variation in the stamens’ mode of contact, as well as the shape and size of the fenestrae providing access to FNs. Some types seemed to arise independently in different genera, thus providing a high level of homoplasy. FNs were more conserved and comprised areas of secretory stomata in the abaxial part of the receptacle and/or hypanthium. Nectariferous stomata could be found in very miniaturized flowers (Medicago lupulina) and could even accompany monadelphy (Galega). This indicates that preferential self-pollination may nevertheless require visitation by insects.

Pityphyllum mercedes-abarcae (Maxillariinae) a new species from Euador

A new species of Pityphyllum from south-eastern Ecuador was found during an investigation of the orchids of the Cordillera del Cóndor. Pityphyllum mercedes-abarcae is described and illustrated. Information concerning its distribution, habitat, and phenology is provided. The new proposed taxon is morphologically similar to P. pinoides, from which it differs by the smaller plants, the spathulate petals with an erose margin in the middle third, lip flattened is square in the middle third, wedge in the basal third and acute in the apical third with two small parallel calluses in the apical third, presents a slight cell thickening in the abaxial part of the apical third and elongated trichomes below the stigma.

Genetic variability of spiralling whitefly Aleurodicus disperses Russell on Citrus aurantifolia Christm and Ocimum gratissimum L.

The spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus Russell (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), has a wide range of anatomy, physiology, behaviour, and ecology depending on the host plant. This research looked at the genetic variations between A. dispersus populations on two separate host plants (Citrus aurantifolia and Ocimum gratissimum). The existence of host-related genetic variation in A. dispersus populations was determined using Rapid Amplification of Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. Our findings revealed that the A. dispersus populations on the two host plants had a considerable amount of genetic divergence. The spiralling whiteflies on the adaxial part of Citrus aurantifolia were genetically distinct from those on the abaxial part of the same plants. Various population genetic parameters such as heterozygosity, Nei's genetic gap, and fixation indices (FST) revealed that spiralling whitefly populations vary genetically, which may be attributable to spiralling whitefly populations originating from multiple sources. These findings also have consequences for the invasive pest's quarantine safety strategy.

Mechanical buckling can pattern the light-diffracting cuticle of Hibiscus trionum.

Many species have cuticular striations that play a range of roles, from pollinator attraction to surface wettability. In Hibiscus trionum, the striations span multiple cells at the base of the petal to form a pattern that produces a type of iridescence. It is postulated, using theoretical models, that the pattern of striations could result from mechanical instabilities. By combining the application of mechanical stress with high-resolution imaging, we demonstrate that the cuticle buckles to create a striated pattern. Through mechanical modeling and cryo-SEM fractures, we show that the cuticle behaves like a bilayer system with a stiff film on a compliant substrate. The pattern of buckling aligns with the direction of the stress to create a larger-scale pattern. Our findings contribute to the understanding of the formation of tissue-wide patterns in living organisms.

The effect of organic fertilizers on the leaf morphology and stomatal density of Pogostemon cablin Benth

Pogostemon cablin Benth is one of the most important crops grown in Indonesia, especially in Aceh province. It is well known as Patchouli belongs to Lamiaceae family and shows a great demand for perfume, luxury products, food and beverage industry. This study conducted to determine the effect of organic fertilizers application on the leaf morphology and stomatal density on the Pogostemon cablin Benth. The seedlings were transplanted for three months on the soil mixed either with manure or compost. The results obtained that was no significant different in affecting the leaf morphology of Pogostemon cablin Benth. The treatment with manure application showed the highest leaf length (15.23 cm) and the highest leaf width (10.5 cm), the leaf color is green. While the stomatal density obtained the significant difference among the treatments, the highest stomatal density in both side of the leaf surface showed in the application of manure, 663.5 mm-2 for adaxial part and 486.38 mm-2 for abaxial part. Stomatal type is anisocytic and on the leaf surface was found glandular and non-glandular trichomes.

The effect of cutting the bulbil-porang (Amorphophallus muelleri) on its germination ability

Bulbil, an aerial tuber specifically found on porang, is one tool for multiplication of porang (Amorphophallus muelleri).. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of bulbil cutting on the number of tubercles, the proportion of black and white tubercles, the potential for shoot production, the number and height of shoots produced from both cutting (2 and 4 cuts) which appeared in the abaxial or adaxial parts, and the direction of shoot growth. This study was designed using a completely randomized design, each unit of observation was four-replicated. The obtained data were analyzed using Anova, Tukey or independence T-test. The results showed the number of shoots from the whole bulbil, bulbil cut (two or four) differed significantly. The highest number of shoots obtained from bulbil cut was 4 which was 9 shoots. Those highest number of shoots was supported by the highest white tubercle. However, the potential for shoots to emerge from both whole and cut bulbils were almost the same, the length of the shoots did not differ significantly between them as well. The ratio between white and black tubercles seemed to affect the number of shoots, the high ratio produced more shoots. The tubercle ratio from intact bulbils, cut-2 bulbils and cut-4 bulbils tend to increase but not significantly different. The length of shoots that appear from the adaxial and abaxial parts was not different as well. All shoots from both the whole bulbil and cut bulbil grew upwards, none of which grows horizontally or towards the earth.

Stomata Profile Comparisons in Abaxial and Adaxial Zones of Dendrobium aphyllum and Arachnis flos-aeris Leaves

Stomata play an essential role in transpiration and metabolism. Orchids are Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) plants which are generally succulent leaf type. Orchids have several types of stomata, depending on habitat and environmental parameters that affect them. This study aimed to compare the stomata, including the anatomical structure, activity, and density of the orchids Dendrobium aphyllum and Arachnis flos-aeris. The method used was printing the surface of the leaves using glue and observed with a microscope. Data obtained were analyzed with the help of Image raster 3.0 and MS. Excel. In the present study, the stomata of D. aphyllum and A. flos-aeris are characterized by anomocytic type. The highest stomata density was obtained on the abaxial part of D. aphyllum 09.00 am 1177.78 um2. The adaxial leaves of both species are classified as low, or no stomata are found at all. The distance between the stomata on the abaxial leaves of D. aphyllum and A. flos-aeris is denser than the leaves' adaxial side. Stomata activity in orchids is related to orchids' adaptation process to the environmental parameters of their habitat. Stomata activity affects the transpiration process and CO2 fixation in orchid CAM metabolism.

Advances in Surfactants in Foliar Application of Agrochemicals on Mango Leaf Surfaces

Abstract The surface tension, pH and contact angle of the wetting liquid as well as the complex composition of the leaf surface are important parameters to describe the spreading, wettability and absorption of agrochemicals on the leaf surfaces. The contact angle of aqueous solutions of agrochemicals (multi-micronutrient fertilizers, growth regulator and insecticides) with/without Leaf guard, bis(2-ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate sodium salt (AOT) and Sapindus mukorrossi (Ritha) were measured over the surface of mango leaves. The order of contact angle (mean) values was found to be AOT < Ritha < Leaf guard, which implies that AOT is a better wetting agent, but Ritha has a higher range of adhesion work because of its acidic nature (low pH). The wetting free energy was found to be more negative in the presence of Leaf guard, Ritha and AOT than in water, which indicates that wetting is more spontaneous in the presence of surfactants. The adaxial surface of mango leaves had a higher surface free energy than the abaxial part and hence showed higher wettability than the abaxial part.

Diversity of Weevils (Coleoptera) in Marahan, Marilog Forest Reserve, Southern Mindanao, Philippines

Fieldworks were conducted last January to March, 2019 to collect and record species of weevils at Sitio Matigsalug, Marahan, Marilog Forest Reserve, Marilog District, Mindanao, Philippines. Standard sampling techniques such as belt transect and opportunistic sampling were conducted in the established 2 kilometers transect to survey the agroforest and montane ecosystems with elevations of 800-950 masl and 1,000-1,300 masl, respectively. A total of 228 individuals belonging to 2 families and 22 species of weevils were recorded, all of which are only known from forest and mountain ecosystems of Mindanao. Metapocrytus is the most encountered genus with 12 species. The montane forest had higher species richness with 15 species but with lower species abundance of 34 individuals compared to the agroforest ecosystem with 13 species and 194 individuals. Seven (7) species are common in both sites. Plant associates and behavior of the observed weevils were also noted which include 22 species of ferns and flowering plants. Other than perching behavior, species are also observed copulating, feeding and mostly hiding in abaxial part of leaves. As flightless beetles with high vulnerability for predation by other insectivorous species, the observations gathered will help in understanding their behaviors for survival. Despite of high species richness and abundance, anthropogenic disturbances such as agricultural activities are on-going which extend towards the montane forest in the area. Conservation initiatives must be implemented to protect the remaining endemic and rare species of flora and fauna.