4th Century AD Research Articles

Un’analisi del riutilizzo delle epigrafi urartee in epoca medievale nell’Altopiano Armeno

This contribution examines the phenomenon of reuse of the epigraphic material carved on stone, produced by the civilization of Urartu. The methods of reuse during the centuries have been varied and are the subject of in-depth analysis in this contribution. From the analysed data, the greatest interest in Urartian inscriptions occurred during the initial phase of the Middle Ages, in particular starting from the 7th century AD, but the phenomenon seems to continue without interruption until the end of the 19th century, in the first great season of the archaeological discoveries of the area.

Before the Nation-State: Civilizations, World Orders, and the Origins of Global International Relations

Abstract The dominant perspectives on International Relations (IR) focus on the rise of the Western civilization and the global expansion of the European Westphalian system as their starting point. This leads to a narrow Eurocentric understanding of IR that obscures the role and contribution of other civilizations to the evolution of world order. However, during the last 5000 years, many civilizations have risen, fallen, and survived. This essay focuses on five world orders that made their mark before the “rise of the West” or the advent of European colonialism around roughly the 16th century AD: Near Eastern, Indian, Chinese, Islamic, and Indian Oceanic. A study of classical civilizations and world orders can help IR scholars to more fully engage history and reshape the study of IR theories and concepts in several ways. It helps us to understand, and if necessary, challenge, the dominance of certain key ideas that claim to be universal and have been taken for granted as such. Moreover, studying IR from a historical–civilizational perspective opens the door to understanding both material and ideational relationships among states and societies. It also encourages a shift in IR thinking from the conventional state-centric category of the “international system” to the broader framing of world order.

IMPORTANCE OF MANUSCRIPTS IN PRESENT ERA

Communications is essential for human existence which can be conducted by oral and written traditions. Ayurveda is an ancient science which has both oral and written traditions for dissemination of knowledge. Manuscriptology is the scientific and structural study of handwritten documents credited with fair antiquity. Treasures of the wisdom has passed from generation to generation by oral tradition and then written on different plant leaves and other materials. Paper usage became popular by the end of 13th century AD, till then various other materials were used for transferring knowledge. They are sources of cultural heritage and history. Their proper preservation is mandatory. Rich collections of manuscript are found in temples, religious institutions, libraries, monasteries, wealthy households, Brahmin families and palaces. Surveys require large labor, manpower and time. In the past years, many manuscripts were identified by surveys and preserved for further used. Nowadays apart from publication of manuscripts, these are being digitized also.

Perkembangan Islam di Kota Medan Pada Masa Sekarang : Study Kasus Perkembangan Islam Kota Medan

Islam first entered Indonesia to be precise in the city of Barus which is located in the Coastal region of Central Tapanuli Regency, North Sumatra. This city is 290 KM from the capital, namely Medan, North Sumatra. If taken by land, it might take as long as 7 hours. However, if you are in Sibolga, this city can be reached in just 2 hours. Long before the emergence of the history of the Wali Songo who spread Islamic teachings in Java, to be precise in the 14th century, Islam was already in Barus. In the 7th century AD, Poly historical literature confirms that the Islamic belief in Indonesia was for the first time in Barus. This can be clarified by the existence of an old tomb in the Mahligai cemetery area, Barus. On the tombstone is written the name of Sheikh Rukunuddin who died in 672 AD or 48 H. This confirms that at that time there was a Muslim community.
 Keywords: Islamic history of the present day city of Medan, the development of Islam with electronic media in the city of Medan

The unknown letters of Marie Prittwitz, the German translator of “The Knight in the Panther’s Skin”, to the Juruli Family

The study of the Georgian noble families has always been of great importance to the Georgian historiography. Noble Georgian families can be traced to the 7th Century AD. The concept of nobility is generally linked to history, social status, and legalities. The majority of noble families received titles as a result of their intelligence, military service and close relationships to royalty. In the given article, we try to revive the history of Juruli and Makrashvili families by shedding light on the relationship of Nino Juruli and Marie Prittwitz, a translator of “The Knight in the Panther’s Skin”. For years, Juruli and Makarashvili families had been the center of Georgian literature and culture and they did their best to support and popularize Georgian culture at home and abroad.

Preservation and Conservation Initiatives of Libraries in Sri Lanka: A Review of Literature

Libraries are institutions that provide access to a comprehensive collection of information and resources for educational, research, and recreational purposes. They serve as repositories of knowledge and offer numerous services to their communities. In this process, libraries play a paramount role in preserving and conserving library materials for future generations. The objectives of this paper were to investigate the significant Preservation and Conservation (PAC) initiatives of library materials from the ancient periods (3rd Century BC to 5th Century AD), the colonial period (1505 to 1948), and the post-independence period (1948 to date), to identify the gaps related to the current practices of PAC in Sri Lanka and to identify the issues related to PAC in Sri Lanka. This study focused on a qualitative research method. Relevant literature was found through secondary sources such as books, journal articles, conference papers, organizational reports and websites. The Department of National Museums (DNM), Department of National Archives (DNA) and National Library and Documentation Services Board (NLDSB) and Sri Lankan University Libraries (ULs), were purposively selected. The secondary resources were gathered from online and offline resources based on subject-related keywords. The published year was not considered during the process, and priority was given to Sri Lankan and foreign-authored publications on preservation and conservation of library materials in Sri Lanka. Literature was analyzed based on above mentioned three time frames selected for the study. The study identified growing trends in preservation and conservation practices from ancient to post-independence periods. Even though some evidence goes back to King Vijaya’s period (483 BC), official writing was started in 103–77 BC. Some writing materials, such as inscriptions, palm leaves, and golden plates, were used during this period. And they were preserved for future purposes. Later, in the colonial period, the Portuguese, Dutch and British developed writing materials and established positions such as Record keepers and Archivists. They introduced ‘paper’ in this period. Then, in the post-independence period, the DNM, DNA, NLDSB and ULs were identified as pioneering organizations that led the task of preserving. It was identified gaps between the literatures and existing literature only identified palm leaves as a main library material to be conserved and preserved. The main issues derived from the analysis were a lack of financial allocations, policies, laws and regulations, training, and research related to the field. The study pointed out the need for a separate preservation and conservation unit to handle the preservation activities in each library while establishing a distinct institute for Research and Development and to provide necessary training required to maintain the activities of preservation and conservation of library materials in the country.

AMS, HISTORICAL, AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATING OF OPONICE CASTLE

ABSTRACT The fifth season of excavations of Oponice Castle in 2020 was located in the lower castle’s courtyard. The research led to discovery of an original clay floor being heavily burned with charred plank and a rectangular stone-brick construction. The construction has collapsed upper part with a fallen low brick arch. The whole area was covered with numerous stove tiles and one clay mold for the production of stove tiles. The construction was identified as a pottery kiln dated to the second half of the 16th until the first half of the 17th century AD by the findings from excavated layer identified to the kiln destruction. Also, written sources mention a large fire in 1645 which destroyed the castle. The aim of this article is to use different methods of dating and refine the chronology of the context through microarchaeology and Bayesian modeling. For these purposes different types of samples were collected. The sampling focused on site formation process determination of pottery kiln use and the way of its destruction. Applying Bayesian analysis improved overall dating, through modeled time interval of the three individual sequences and helped recreated historical events during the period, when the calibration curve fluctuates.

The Meaning Of Progress According To Shaykh Abdullah Fahim

The Malays began to gain awareness of nationalism in the early 20th century AD. The figures among Kaum Muda (Reformist Movement) are considered a precursor to the consciousness movement. Kaum Muda who are heavily influenced by the thinking of the Egyptian reformist figure, Shaykh Muhammad Abduh, aspired to expand modern thinking so that Muslims can stand as high as other races and take over the reins of government from the British colonialists. But the attitude of Kaum Muda likes to criticize Malay Sultans, and generate debate with scholars of the Kaum Tua (Traditionalist) not much progress can be achieved. At the same time, Shyakh Abdullah Fahim, one of the scholars of the Kaum Tua also had the same thought as Kaum Muda, which encourages people to develop themselves and Malays have the awareness to govern the country. This study seeks to examine the thinking of Shaykh Abdullah Fahim from his point of view on development and religion and its impact on progress. The method used in the study is qualitative based. The approach used to obtain information is by applying archival research. The results of the study found that Shaykh Abdullah Fahim still adheres to the basic principles of the Kaum Tua, namely Ahl Al-Sunnah Wa Al-Jamaah in an effort to develop the nation and country. The three things that Shaykh Abdullah Fahim emphasized to achieve progress were the establishment of educational institutions, involvement in the production of writing materials to inspire awareness, and the development of the youth generation

Application of UAS with Remote Sensing Sensors for the Location of Marks in the Archaeological Site of the Europos, Greece

The Archaic Acropolis of Europos (region of Central Macedonia, Greece) is an important archaeological site, which was inhabited since the 7th century BC up to the 4th century AD. In the lowland area, south of the acropolis and a short distance away, archaeologists speculate that the extensive ancient cemetery of the acropolis, which is a result of its long-term habitation, was located there. In an effort to locate marks that will support this view, WingtraOne GEN II, one of today’s leading Uncrewed Aircraft Systems, was used to collect RGB and multispectral images. After the production of the necessary digital surface models and orthophotomosaics, index maps related to the crops were created. The total of the products allowed the visual identification of 123 marks, which are probably attributed to hitherto unknown covered ancient tombs. In addition, marks of unknown covered ditches of long length were found in the plain area, and on the outskirts of the acropolis marks of its possible wall and the base of one of its towers.

Application of Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy for Quantitative Analysis of the Chemical Composition of Historical Lead Silicate Glasses

The study of the chemical composition of historical glasses is widely used in archaeometry. The results of such analyses provide information on the probable date, place, and technological features of their production. Over time, a weathered layer may form on the surface of the glass, which differs in composition from the original one. To determine the initial composition using conventional methods (for example, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy), the weathered layer should be removed. For historical objects, such manipulation is unacceptable and should be minimized. One of the methods for analyzing the chemical composition with minimal damage to a sample is laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy. The aim of this work was to develop a LIBS method, which makes it possible to perform a quantitative analysis of lead silicate glasses, including glasses containing a weathered layer. Reference glasses with a variable content of potassium, silicon, and lead oxides were synthesized, and based on the LIBS spectra, a calibration dependence was obtained that made it possible to measure the concentration of lead and potassium oxides in glasses within 70–85 and 5–20 wt%, respectively. The method was applied to analyze the composition of the glaze on a historic glazed tile from the burial church in the Euphrosinian monastery in Polotsk (the second half of the 12th century AD). The crater formed with the laser beam on the glazed surface was about 200 microns. Such damage is negligible compared to the total surface area of the tile (~10 cm2). The thickness of the weathered glaze layer was 70 microns, which was determined using variation in lead oxide content.

Преднамеренная искусственная деформация у населения позднесарматского времени (палеопатологический аспект)

Introduction. Intentional artificial head deformation is one of the most striking features of the late Sarmatian nomads from the Eastern European steppes. For quite a long time, archaeologists and anthropologists tried to solve the issues associated with this custom’s emergence and existence in the population of the 2nd – 4 th centuries AD. Later, the question of the deforming structure’s impact on the normal life of a person became a separate research line for the phenomenon of artificial cranial deformation in the late Sarmatians. Methods and materials. 155 craniums of sexually mature late Sarmatian populations (2nd – 4th centuries AD) originating from under the burial mounds in the territory of the Lower Volga region were the material for the study. Comparison of pathological conditions occurrence between the deformed and undeformed skull groups was carried out using nonparametric tests: Pearson’s chi-squared test (χ2) and Fisher’s exact test. Results. Comparative analysis of pathological conditions occurrence on deformed and undeformed skulls in late Sarmatian time has shown that the only deviation in which the compared series differ significantly is temporomandibular joint arthritis. Discussion. The frequency and degree of articular disease development in late Sarmatians with intentional artificial head deformities increase with age. The age-related variability of arthrotic changes in the mandibular joint area indicates the involutionary nature of this condition. At the same time, the absence of statistical differences between age groups in the distribution frequencies of this pathology and its wide distribution in young individuals under 35 years of age suggest that artificial skull deformation is one of the factors stimulating its development. Conclusions. Degenerative changes in the temporomandibular joint area are a statistically more widespread pathology in deformed skulls. The absence of gender differences between the deformed and undeformed skulls in the late Sarmatians, as well as the groups of pathologies associated with diet and the degree of negative factors impacting the natural and social environment, indicates that this custom in the late Sarmatian society did not carry the function of gender or social differentiation. The use of a modifying structure for deliberate artificial cranial deformation is quite compatible with normal human life, and its use did not subsequently lead to the development of serious skull and brain pathologies.

Позднесарматское клинковое оружие из погребений Березовского курганного могильника

Introduction. One of the main types of Sarmatian weapons is bladed weapons, represented by daggers and swords. The relatively small number of Late Sarmatian burials in the forest-steppe Podonye determines the importance of publishing new materials – daggers and swords. Materials. The materials for the analysis were artifacts (iron daggers and swords) discovered during the study of kurgan burial ground 4 near the village of Berezovka in the Vorobyevsky district of the Voronezh region (left bank of the Middle Don). In four of the seven burials examined, bladed weapons were found. The dead were buried under separate mounds in elongated rectangular pits and chambers clogged with continental clay. The heads of the buried were directed to the southern sector (three burials) and to the east-northeast (one burial). Bladed weapons were located according to the tradition of the Scythians and Sarmatians – at the right hand with the tip to the extremities of the legs. Methods. The study used a comparative typological method that allowed us to distinguish the found daggers and swords into a separate type of bladed weapons; the method of analogies, which was used to compare the type with similar finds in the Sarmatian culture; and the chronological method, which made it possible to attribute the discovered blades to the late Sarmatian culture. Analysis. During the analysis of artifacts, typical signs of bladed weapons characteristic of the late Sarmatian culture were identified; although the time of their appearance belongs to the early and Middle Sarmatian periods, their chronological framework was determined (mid-2nd – 4th centuries AD). A dagger and a sword were found together in two burials. Results. All burials in which bladed weapons were found belong to men (age range from 25–30 years to 35–40 years). Judging by the available data, the joint occurrence of a dagger and a sword in the burial may indicate in favor of the opinion that there are burials of professional soldiers in the burial ground.

Early Byzantine city walls of Hierapolis in Phrygia: demolishing and recycling the Imperial era monuments

The study concerns the city walls of Hierapolis in Phrygia (Denizli, Turkey), which were built in the second half of the 4th century AD or at the beginning of the 5th century AD, by systematically recycling architectural blocks from Imperial-era public monuments and funerary edifices. The preserved remains of the fortifications enclose the city along its northern, eastern and southern sides, leaving out large sectors of the urban area. Within the research activities of the Italian Archaeological Mission, topographical DGPS surveys of the remains were performed, and a geodatabase of the reemployed blocks was implemented with three main aims: i) the reconstruction of the building site of the city walls; ii) the identification of the demolished monuments of the Imperial-era used as “quarries” and the study of the procurement strategies of stone materials in the early-Byzantine Hierapolis; iii) the analysis of the relationship between the large building site of the fortifications and the other coeval construction sites and their impact on the socio-economic life of the city. The research allowed us to trace the development of the building site of the city walls, which, starting from the north, mainly reemployed blocks from the necropolises, North Theatre, North Agora and the shops along the plateia not-included into the early Byzantine Hierapolis. Moreover, numerous materials from the Gymnasium and other monuments located in the central part of the city but not yet identified on the ground were especially reused in the eastern and southern sectors of the walls. Lastly, the location of the recycled blocks made it possible even to reconstruct the various transportation routes linking the demolished monuments to the different sectors of the city walls. On cover:Late Roman wall, the portion immediately south of the West Gate (Porta Oea) with re-used blocks from first-century mausolea (Drawing by Francesca Bigi) and Tombstone of Regina from South Shields (Arbeia) (Tyne and WearArchives and Museums/ Bridgeman Images). E-ISSN (online version) 2611-3686 ISSN (print version) 0065-0900

MUHAMMADIYAH YOUTH'S PROCLAMATION OF ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION IN INDONESIA THROUGH DAKWAH COMMUNICATION

This article delves into the pivotal role of Muhammadiyah Youth's preaching communication in Indonesia, focusing on its contribution to the nation's independence. The organization's primary aim is to address and rectify deviations within the da'wah process, while also promoting an advanced and educated social and educational structure. Employing a qualitative research methodology through library research, the study draws from primary sources, including Books of Islamic Intellectual Treasures, Islamic Intellectual Reform, Contextualization of Islamic Doctrine in History, and Intellectual Tradition of Malay Scholars of the 18th Century AD, alongside relevant secondary data. Data collection involves four techniques: heuristics, verification, interpretation (analysis and synthesis), and historiography. The research reveals that Muhammadiyah Youth's da'wah communication encompasses three key domains: godliness, focusing on God, His attributes, and the universe's relationship with Him; morality, addressing human behavior, relationships with God, others, and the universe; and physics, exploring nature's growth and development.The relevance of Muhammadiyah Youth's preaching communication is demonstrated through four doctrines: enlightening the people, promoting charitable actions, fostering cooperation for virtue, and steering clear of political pragmatism. To ensure continuous and responsive da'wah in a dynamically changing society, it is crucial to anticipate the negative implications of information and communication globalization. The study advocates for informative, comprehensive, targeted, and sustainable preaching, leading to the effective implementation of Islamic sharia in society, transcending mere legal aspects.

HAK ASASI MANUSIA DALAM PANDANGAN AL QUR'AN

In life in this world, humans are creatures that have rights where these rights must be granted by various parties. In terms of oppression, colonialism, slavery and discrimination, there are various forms of action that can be said to be disrespectful to human rights. Where in the preamble of the 1945 constitution it was said that colonialism in the world must be abolished which can emphasize the glory and freedom of humans which cannot be taken away by anyone. In writing this journal the author wants to reveal about human rights in the view or perspective of the Koran by making the concept of Maqashid Syariah as its source and scalpel. Where in writing this journal the author uses library research methods or library research. In fact, issues and discussions about human rights have existed since the 18th century AD where the formulation of human rights at that time was still legal and used as a standard at this time, namely the one issued by the United Nations on December 10, 1948. In its journey, human rights themselves are increasingly increased and many violations have occurred in various countries and the world. In the Islamic religion, through the Al-Quran, rules have been determined relating to human rights, including (1) Where all humans without exception have the right to live, (2) living humans have the right to receive proper education and according to their abilities, (3) the right to be free and protect property owned, (4) the right to honor and (5) the right to be able to embrace a religion according to the beliefs one believes in.

Patterns of Intertribal Violence in Late Antique Arabia (III-VII Century AD)

In Late Antiquity Arabia, under the Byzantine and Sassanid states, there are many decentralized nomadic or sedentary tribal political structures in addition to centralized organizations. There are constant conflicts and wars between the tribes. There are many reasons for their wars such as booty, blood feud, revenge, and border violations. All these reasons and the relative multiplicity of wars show that inter-tribal wars are a form of life in the pre-Islamic period. Through wars, fraternal tribes that are separated from each other for any reason can come together and form a strong unity against the threat of a state. The literature that deals with these wars is called ayyâm al-Arab. This literature, which began to be written down in the 8th century AD, includes intertribal wars, raids, plundering and mass murder with the motive of looting; it also includes relations between Arab tribes, power struggles, feelings of nervousness, strategies of conflict and war, daily life and the law of war. Our research focuses on raids as a war strategy among pre-Islamic Arabs, looting, plundering and mass murder with the motive of gaining booty, with the method of document analysis based on a qualitative paradigm, and it aims to analyse the socio-economic alliance practices produced by war and conflict among Arab tribes through the dynamics. According to the data obtained, it is understood that the reasons such as the inadequacy of resources in the region, the deprivation of central authority, the motive of obtaining booty cause conflicts and alliances.

CHALLENGES OF SMALL-SCALE MINERS TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE RURAL LIVELIHOODS IN WARD 22, CHEGUTU DISTRICT, ZIMBABWE

The mining industry has always played a key role in Zimbabwe’s economy in pre-colonial, colonial and post-independence eras. Historical records show that by the 13th century AD, there was evidence of gold mining in the country. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, a lucrative gold and ivory trade was underway between the Portuguese and the Munhumutapa empire (Mpofu, et al., 2009). During the late 19th century, the country was occupied by pioneers of British South African origin (under the protection of the BSAP). Gold mining was the major incentive for these colonizers. Each of the pioneers was promised 3 000 acres of land as well as fifteen gold claims (Mpofu, et al., 2009). According to Bulpin (1968) rumours had been spreading in South Africa that across the Limpopo River gold could be found hanging on tree branches. Though unfounded, such stories added impetus to every white man who dreamt of getting rich quickly to join the pioneers in their migration to the new colony. Since independence in 1980, some sixty minerals have been mined in Zimbabwe including gold, copper, tin, chrome, iron ore, asbestos, coal, lithium, diamonds and platinum (Munowenyu, 1996). To date, mining contributes over 90% to the country’s GDP. However, it is also a major source of income for rural communities that rely on gold panning in order to earn a living. Although the activity is regarded as illegal it contributes significantly to rural livelihoods. Gold panners usually sell their gold to Fidelity Printers and in return get US dollars for each ounce of gold sold. Due to their lack of technology, gold panners cause a lot of environmental damage which is worsened by their use of mercury in their activities. Mercury eventually spills into rivers and streams thereby poisoning water sources and the aquatic life therein. This study exposes the economic activities of small-scale miners in rural Chegutu Ward 22 (Zimbabwe) and their implications on sustainable development.<p> </p><p><strong> Article visualizations:</strong></p><p><img src="/-counters-/soc/0015/a.php" alt="Hit counter" /></p>

Konsep Pengetahuan Sejarah Ibnu Taimiyah Pada Masa Yunani Dan Islam

This study aims to analyze the concept of historical knowledge put forward by Ibn Taimiyah during the ancient Greek period and the development of Islam. Ibn Taimiyah is an Islamic scholar who lived in the 13th century AD, while ancient Greece is an important period in the history of human civilization which includes the classical and Hellenistic periods. The research method used is descriptive qualitative, by explaining more emphasis on the power of data analysis on existing data sources. The results showed that Ibn Taimiyah had a deep understanding of history and considered it an important source of knowledge. He stressed the importance of studying and understanding history as an effort to understand the journey of humanity and take lessons from the past. Ibn Taimiyah also highlighted the importance of understanding and criticizing existing historical sources in order to gain an accurate and objective understanding

Pilgrim Town of Philoxenite and Settlement Continuation in the Early Islamic Hinterland of Alexandria, Egypt

The history of settlements in the Mareotis region or the immediate hinterland of Alexandria in the first century following the Arab conquest of Egypt has not been sufficiently studied. Earlier findings stated that the region had suffered a settlement crisis prior to the second half of the 7th century AD, with an unstable hydrological situation as the contributing factor. Those findings contradicted the results of the archaeological excavations at Philoxenite, a town located in the western part of the Mareotis region. The Byzantine buildings and public spaces studied at that site had been in use until the first half of the 8th century. Upon analysis, the associated sequences of layers and structures imply that their uses were subject to modification. Putting these findings into the context of a regional perspective leads to the conclusion that the settlement history of Alexandria’s western hinterland was more complex than previously thought. Not only does this concern the difficulties in accessing water, but also the decrease in Christian pilgrimage traffic as important factors responsible for the changes.

Ornamental Art of Kalasan Temple in The Perspective of Art Philosophy

The beauty of Kalasan Temple façade can be seen from its variety of decorations known as the pearls of Central Java art in the 8th century AD. The artwork manifests in the aesthetics and artistic value of Kala-Makara, leaf tendrils (purnakalasa), paper paste, apsara-apsari figures. The purpose of this writing is to gain knowledge and insight about the decorative artistic expressions carved on the temples. The method used is qualitative research observing its form, content and meaning. The analysis uses contextual analysis, which is to look at the relationship between ornaments and their context by basing on the motion of lines, the shape of art objects, and rhythmic compositions. The discussion will use aesthetic theory, artistic value and symbol theory to be able to explain the form of beauty in the decorative art of Kalasan Temple. The result shows that the selection of ornamental art ornaments is combined with the right proportions, symmetry in the arrangement and precise processing to produce artistic expression in achieving transcendent ideas.