4th Century AD Research Articles

Preserving the Tangible and Intangible Values of the Baltit Fort in Gilgit-Baltistan Pakistan, through Adaptive Reuse

Tangible and Intangible values are the distinctive qualities that, through the connection of humans with a building and its surrounding community, enable the creation of a particular link called “genius loci” that links the past to the present. In the present time, ancient buildings and sites of historical importance are the carriers of collective memories, which, together with the local characters, create this special spirit of space. Over time, these associations have become an integral part of the local community, telling a unique story. The paper explores how tangible and intangible heritage values can be translated into a new use for a building, connecting its history to the present via a case study in Pakistan: The Baltit Fort (14th century AD). The 700-year-old fort was used as a residence until the 20th century but fell into disrepair over the years. After a restoration project that was part of the ‘Aga Khan Trust for Culture’ initiative in the northern areas of Pakistan, the building is now open to visitors as a museum. The paper will critically examine the approaches of the adaptive reuse implied for the project to explore how the tangible and the intangible essence of the past have played a role in proposing the new functions. The study’s outcome will be to see how the symbolic values of the past play an important role in giving a building a new function, preserving the spirit of the place, and preserving significant cultural assets.

Keunikan Metode Tafsir Al-Quranil Azhim Al-Adzim Karya Ibnu Katsir

Ibn Kasir belongs to the Middle Ages Mufassir (8th century AH / 15th century AD), but in terms of methods and forms of interpretation, Ibn Kasir is in the "middle" position. In other words, he is officially in a classical position because he uses the form of interpretation of Bil Matsur. Ibn Kathir's method uses the tahlili method. In addition, in the interpretation of Ibn Kathir there is a special method that can be found with the analysis carried out by the author on the Tafsir of Ibn Kathir. In this study, the researchers used a type of literature study that has a descriptive qualitative method. From the literature review, it can be seen that the data collection techniques in this study were taken from various written data sources by combining the data generated and analyzed inductively.

A REVIEW OF “AGORA” IN THE CONTEXT OF CITIES DEPICTION IN EPIC FILMS

Throughout the History of Cinema, Epic Films have allowed us to communicate with the past. It can be said that the Archaeological Films were successful to the extent that the facts they deal with are parallel to the present. Spanish Director Alejandro Amanebar’s 2009 film “Agora” takes the audience on a two-hour journey into the past, in the context of The Story of Hipatya. The City of Alexandria has been a research center for six centuries since its establishment in the 3rd century B.C. by Alexander the Great and has reached the position of a center where the latest developments in science were gathered and interpreted. On the other hand, city was going through a problematic period in the 5th century AD and science was largely identified with paganism. Hipatya, an astronomer, mathematician and scientist living in Alexandria during this period, symbolized a researcher on target with her fearless and rational stance. In the city, the Parabolans, who defended the Christian Morality, stripped Hippatia from the horse-drawn carriage she was driving, killed her by hitting her naked body, and threw her body into the fire in the year 415 A.D. The film first examines the factors that prepared this event, then focuses on the life in Alexandria City in parallel with the last days of Hipatya. The striking feature of “Agora” at first glance is that it is the best of all epics in terms of visual aesthetics. Moreover, considering all the factors from story to production design, we can qualify “Agora” as the best epic ever made in the History of Cinema. In our work, we examine all these elements in details.

The Historical Development of Settlement by Aryan People in Terai of Nepal

This research article is related to the development of settlement by Aryan people in the Terai region of Nepal. Aryan people had entered the Terai region of Nepal during the Vedic period. In ancient times, various states were developed in the region of Nepal. The Mithila state of the Eastern Terai, the Ramgram state western part of the Gandaki River and the Kapilvastu state west of the present Butwal region were developed in before the Christian era. Most of the people in those states also migrated from India. Even in the middle Age, a state called Tirahoot or Doya was developed in the eastern Terai region of Nepal. Although this kingdom came to an end in the 14thcentury AD. After the conquest of the eastern Terai region by the Sen Dynasty the king of Palpa, the three kingdoms of Makwanpur, Chaudandi and Vijaypur remained in that region till the time of unification by Prithvi Narayan Shah, the king of Gorkha. After the unification of Nepal, the ancient and medieval independent Terai regions were automatically included in the Kingdom of Nepal. The article clarifies that there has been continuous settlement in the Terai region of Nepal from ancient period to the present.

Iron-Frame Wooden Stock-Anchor Design of the Age of Exploration

This paper describes the design of stock-anchors during the Age of Exploration (from the 15th into the 17th centuries AD), which is the primary design employed by European ships. Statistical analysis of published global finds is synthesised in conjunction with contemporary dating textual details. This study demonstrates that, while the iron-frame and wooden stock designs are comparable superficially, there are recognisable diachronic and geographical variations and features. Following a Classical Mediterranean foundation, its secondary roots can be isolated particularly to 1st millennium AD Northern Europe.

نشأة اللغة العربية وتطورها فى التاريخ الإسلامي

Arabic is a language that contributes vocabulary to languages that exist in the world, the main reason is that this language is used in the holy book, namely al-Qur'an which has survived in its original language for more than 14 centuries. Arabic is one of the Samiyah language families, ascribed to the son of the Prophet Noah named Sam ibn Nuh, then Arabic moved to "Ya'rab ibn Qahthan" to Prophet Ibrahim who used Arabic so that Arabic developed to the land of the Hijaz, Nejed, and surroundings. As for the inscription about Baidah Arabic which is estimated to have lived in the 1st century BC, which uses three dialects, namely Tsyamudiyah, Syafwiyah, and Lihyaniyah. Meanwhile, Baqiyah Arabic was discovered after the 5th century AD, which is used by Arabs in literature, writing, and essay. The Arabic dialect of Bagiyah has two families, namely the western side of the Hijaz which uses the dialect of "Quraish", and the eastern side of Nejed is "Tamimiyah". These two dialects developed the Arabic Fusha language which became the language of the Qur'an and Hadith.

Professor Discourse and Learning & Teaching Principles

Learning is not a human-only activity. This learning process also applies to animals and birds. For this, time, place, and environment are very important. These are suitable for planned learning. The result of this learning is behavior change. This change in behavior should be positive and should not be different. Therefore, the teaching ability of the teacher depends on the students. It depends on the mood, intelligence, family environment, willingness and readiness. Did the students learn the messages taught by the teacher? To find out, trainings and exercises are conducted today. If they are not successful in them then the teacher should change his teaching activity. Thus learning and teaching can be said to include all three: student, teacher and proper lesson. The teacher stands between the student and the lesson and encourages the student’s ability to learn. Accordingly, the knowledge base of student is expanding. The teacher should also keep expanding his knowledge. We can show the proof of the text of Irayanar Kavalviyal that these three traditions have come continuously in Tamil. Interpreters come as a continuation of the tradition of learning and teaching. Grammatical and literary texts that appeared in Tamil have been a continuation of the educational tradition and have performed a teaching function. We see this situation since 11th century AD. Teaching methods can be realized in the form of explaining the meaning, in the form of pointing out formal differences and in the form of refuting the ideas of others. Therefore, everyone who appeared in Tamil can be considered as a continuation of the knowledge tradition, that is, the educational tradition. The statement of M. Y. Aurobindo will confirm this point.

PRESERVATION OF RAMMED EARTH STRUCTURES THROUGH TRADITIONAL METHODS: CASE STUDY

This paper describes the research carried out around a high heritage value construction, the Torre Muza de Benifaió in Valencia (Spain). The tower is a defensive building from the Spanish Arab period, built during the 11th and 12th centuries AD. When the studies began, it was abandoned, in a dilapidated state, and slight information was known. Therefore, following extensive and multidisciplinary work was the starting point to recognizing the critical aspects of its history, damage, and current condition. Particularly noteworthy is the specific characterization of the traditional rammed earth construction system and the materials that made it up. All this was performed based on historical research, laser 3D scanning, and complementary characterization studies (physical, chemical, and mechanical) with the vision of the whole and surroundings. With all this, it was possible to determine the recovery of the walls following the same construction technique, although differentiating their specific execution. These preliminary studies allow a respectful consolidation and recovery of the construction and ensure the compatibility and integration of the materials and the intervention. This paper remarks on the importance of multidisciplinary preliminary studies to develop proper preservation of vernacular techniques and heritage architecture.

The High-Status Late Medieval Skull Shaped Relic in Turku Cathedral Finland – Study of the Origin with Oxygen and Strontium Isotope Analyses

The relics and associated reliquaries of Turku Cathedral are among the most significant early Christian artefacts in Finland preserved in situ. Despite their importance, they have not been the focus of scientific enquiry for a number of decades. This study has focused on one skull shaped relic, although the origin and name of its associated saint remains unknown. The relic is the only such example with high-status decoration in the Turku Cathedral collection and is covered with a red silk decorated with yellow yarn. The bones and fabric have been dated from the beginning of the modern era to the 13th century AD, and variance among the radiocarbon (<sup>14</sup>C) dates acquired from the bones shows the remains incorporate several individuals. In this study, oxygen and strontium isotope compositions were determined from fragmented bones and textiles. The results are the first isotope analysis performed on this collection housed in Turku Cathedral. Analysis indicates an origin from outside Finland, possibly elsewhere in northern Europe or an Alpine region. This helps take us a little closer to understanding the mystery associated with this sacred artefact.

Walisongo’s Concept of Religious Moderation in the History of Islamization of Java in the 15th Century AD

<span lang="EN-US">This research offers a review of the concept of Walisongo's religious moderation. As for mapping the concept of religious moderation in Walisongo comprehensively, four indicators of moderation of the Ministry of Religion of the Republic of Indonesia are used as an analytical tool, including national commitment, tolerance, anti-violence, and accommodativeness to local culture. This research is descriptive qualitative research using the historical method. Meanwhile, primary data sources were obtained from the book "Atlas Walisongo", and secondary data sources were obtained from several other supporting kinds of literature. The results of this study show that Walisongo's concept of moderation in terms of four indicators, namely (1) national commitment includes a pledge of loyalty to Majapahit and the stipulation of the Kutara Manawa Dharmashastra law as the constitution of Demak. (2) Tolerance includes the equality of Nawa Dewata's Hinduistic cosmology with Walisongo's Sufistic cosmology and respect for the values </span><span lang="EN-US">of other religious beliefs. (3) Anti-violence includes expanding the influence of Islam through family ties with community leaders and nobles and applying da'wah based on religious humanism. (4) Accommodation of local culture includes Islamization of terms in Hindu-Buddhist and Kapitayan and harmonizing Islamic values </span><span lang="EN-US">with Hindu-Buddhist religious traditions, Kapitayan, and Bhairawa Tantra.</span>

Sumbangan Sultan Omar (m. 1876) dalam Penulisan Manuskrip Quran Terengganu Pada Abad ke 19

The writing of the Qur’an has started since it was revealed to the Prophet S.A.W in the seventh century AD. The effort to copy this sacred words was also done by the caliph al-Rashidin, especially Sayidina Uthman al’Affan until through various improvement processes to ensure that Muslims can use this scripture more easily and in accordance with the latest approach. There are a number of great Islamic empire has made an effort to copy the manuscripts of the Qur’an and this is also true in the Malay world. The Sultanate of Terengganu is recorded among the 11 Islamic sultans that have carried out this copying effort since the 18th century AD. The objective of this study is to identify the era of the Terengganu sultanate who carried out this noble endeavor as the Terengganu sultanate was founded in 1708 AD and ruled by 17 sultans until now. To ensure that the objectives of this study are achieved, qualitative research methods are used by looking at the evidence available in all Terengganu Qur’an manuscript and examining the colophon notes found in the manuscript. To support this study, historical records on the development of Islam and culture are also used as reference. The results of the study found that the Terengganu Quran manuscript has been actively produced during the era of the Baginda Sultan Omar. This is evidenced when four of the five manuscripts of the Qur’an have recorded the date of writing which occurred with the date of his reign. In addition, Baginda Sultan Omar is one of the longest-ruling sultans of Terengganu and and his contribution in knowledge and culture has been recorded in past historical records. The heritage of the Quran manuscript is proof that Baginda Sultan Omar was a ruler who always upheld Islam as the official religion of the state.

Sumbangan Shah Waliyullah al-Dihlawi dalam Perkembangan Intelektual Islam di Malaysia: Beberapa Perkembangan Mutakhir

In the study of civilization, the intellectual achievement of a nation becomes an important aspect that is given great attention. The civilization of a nation is usually formed from interaction with other nations, especially through the influence of intellectual achievement. In this context, this study focuses on the influence of Shah Waliyullah al-Dihlawi in Malaysia. Al-Dihlawi was a Muslim Indian-born scholar in the 18th century AD who made great contributions in the Islamic scientific tradition to this day. Existing research corpus on his contribution in Malaysia is found to comprise of studies which tend to be very specific in their focus, scope and period. This tendency invites for a more comprehensive study, especially which takes into account recent developments. This study, therefore, aims to chronologically discuss the influence of al-Dihlawi’s ideas in Malaysia, including their most recent developments. The study adopts a qualitative methodology, specifically using library research and interviews. The study finds that there are some recent developments in relation to the influence of Dihlawi’s ideas in Malaysia, particularly in the field of Malay literature. This refers to the application of Taklif according to al-Dihlawi‘s explication in Persuratan Baru (officially translated as “Genuine Literature”), a notion by Mohd. Affandi Hassan which has been applied as a framework for analysing Malay literary texts. This application has formed a distinct academic corpus on al-Dihlawi’s thought in Malay literature.

Contribution of Sheikh Muhammad Yasin al-Fadani's Da'wah in Makkah al-Mukarramah in the 20th Century AD

Contribution of Sheikh Muhammad Yasin al-Fadani's Da'wah in Makkah al-Mukarramah in the 20th Century AD

Eastern Altai in the Early Turkic Time: “New” Materials of Excavation of the Kudyrge Complex (from the archaeological heritage of A.S. Vasyutin)

The article presents the excavation materials of a series of Turkic enclosures of the Kudyrge complex located in the Eastern Altai. These objects were investigated by the expedition under the leadership of A.S. Vasyutin in 1982. A detailed description of the studied early medieval enclosures was made based on the information presented in the reporting documentation on the results of excavations. An analysis of the recorded features of the structures, as well as the discovered objects, became the basis for the conclusion on the dating of structures within the second half of the 5th–6th centuries AD and attributing them to the initial stages in the development of the Turkic archaeological culture. It was established that the materials reflect both local traditions related with the nomads of the Syanbi-Rouran time and innovations that indicate the arrival of a new population group in the territory under consideration. Published objects, as well as other complexes, demonstrate the necessity of further field studies of the sites in East Altai dated by the pre-Turkic and Early Turkic periods for the reconstruction of complicated processes of cultural genesis in the Central Asian region in the middle of the 1st millennium AD.

EXCAVATION OF DERBENT SETTLEMENT IN 2019

The article is dedicated to the results of 2019 season excavations of Derbent settlement which existed before construction of the Derbent defensive complex at the end of 560-s. This settlement was gradually left after the construction of a new city given the new name Derbent (Darband). The cultural layers and the construction remains (rooms No. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11) of the 5-th – 6-th centuries AD, the medieval Muslim burials (No. 31-37) which have been dug in the layer of the settlement were open in the southern sector of the excavation area XXV.
 The revealed complex of inhabited and economic constructions including 11 rooms is dated the 5th century AD on the basis of chronological indicators (bronze belt buckles, fibula) and other archeological finds (including, Sasanian pottery). Authors consider that this complex has stopped existence during the military-political events of the middle of the 5th century or of the beginning of the 6th century, namely in the period of an anti-Sasanian revolt of 450-451 or Iran-Savir war of 503-508 AD.
 The materials obtained during excavations shed new light on issues of historical topography and layout, stratigraphy and chronology, architecture and construction, economic activity, culture and life of the inhabitants of the Derbent settlement which is identified with the city-fortress of Chor/Chol known for ancient Armenian, Georgian, Syrian, Early Byzantine and Arab authors and which was the important administrative, military and religious center of East Caucasus. The received materials characterize culture.

Етнонимът „българи“ в ранносредновековните арменски текстове

The standard form Bulghar, with which Bulgarians and the Land of the Bulgarians (Bulgaria) are recorded in medieval Armenian texts, has been established as traditional only since the 11th century. Until then, there were several attested variations, while the oldest form in the earliest Armenian texts was Bulkar, with “k” instead of “gh” (Movses Khorenatsi’s “History of the Armenians”, circa 482 AD), with parallel variants Bolkar and Blkar in the expanded version of the geography Ashkharats’uits’ of Anania Shirakatsi, who lived in the 7th century AD. This characteristic of the earliest Armenian records of the name “Bulgarians” puts an end to the speculation that the form Bulghar in some copies of the history of Movses Khorenatsi proves that his “Bulgarian passages” are a late interpolation making their reliability disputable. On the other hand, the parallel forms Bulkar, Bolkar and Blkar in Ashkharats’uits’ are a valuable indication that different Proto-Bulgarian groups have pronounced the name “Bulgarians” differently. The last leads to the hypothesis of the existence of dialectal differences among the Proto-Bulgarian tribes in the 7th century and even earlier.

Dating dry-stone walls with rock surface luminescence: A case study from the Italian Alps

Dating the construction of dry-stone walls is challenging since such structures are typically built without any mortar that can be used for dating. Rock surface luminescence dating is a developing dating method that could advance chronological insights from structures constructed using dry-stone techniques. This study explores rock surface luminescence dating by targeting dry-stone walls from two enclosure complexes and a hut located in the pastoral upland landscape in Val di Sole, Italy. Gneissic rocks were collected from the dry-stone walls, including surfaces that were either exposed or covered (buried) during the time of sampling. Their respective exposure and burial histories were investigated by measuring the luminescence intensity in feldspar minerals from polymineral rock slices. From covered rock surfaces from one enclosure complex, we calculated recent burial ages (∽200 a) from one rock, and burial of ∽500 a (bottom surface) and 3750 ± 660 a (top surface) from a second rock. The top surfaces of two additional rocks date the construction of an adjacent hut to the Early Middle Ages. The luminescence-depth profile from one such rock has a complex exposure and burial history, including events that predate the hut’s construction. Fitted exposure ages from a second enclosure complex suggest with significant errors either a recent age (<10 a) or construction during the 19th century AD. Burial dating using rock surface luminescence dating appears feasible for dry-stone walls provided that the rock surface was sufficiently exposed before being incorporated into the structure; here, the gneissic surfaces were bleached to depths of ∽0-2 mm before the last burial. Contrariwise, exposure dating generally underestimates the expected age. The variation in ages observed from our rock surfaces indicates that the degree of preservation of the wall, the position of the rock, erosion, and knowledge regarding the general archaeological setting are essential to interpreting the estimated ages. In this study, rock surface luminescence dating provides new, previously inaccessible chronological data with implications for interpreting human activities in the alpine areas of Val di Sole.

Shaykh Nuruddin ar-Raniry's Contribution in his As-Shirath al-Mustaqim to Popularizing Islamic Law in the Nusantara

The paper aimed to discuss the contribution of Shaykh Nuruddin ar-Raniry in popularizing Islamic Law through his work al-Shirath al-Mustaqim in the Nusantara. Shaykh Nuruddin ar-Raniry was a prominent scholar among the Nusantara Scholars who had a major influence on the intellectual and spiritual development of the Kingdom of Aceh Darussalam in the 17th century AD. He is a scholar who is known as an expert in fiqh (Islamic Law) and served as a judge (Qadli Malikul Adil) just during the reign of Sultan Iskandar Tsani. Therefore, this study aims to examine Shaykh Nuruddin Ar-Raniry's contribution to Islamic law through his book entitled as-Shirath al-Mustaqim. The research method in this study is a library study by analyzing the books of Shaykh Nuruddin ar-Raniry and other books related to this study. This study explains that Shaykh Nuruddin ar-Raniry contributed to grounding the Islamic jurisprudence of the Syafii Madhhab in Nusantara in the 17th century AD through his work as-Shirath al-Mustaqim and encouraged the later Nusantara scholars in advancing Islamic legal literacy in Nusantara.&#x0D; Keywords: Shaykh Nuruddin ar-Raniry, As-Shirath al-Mustaqim, Islamic Jurisprudence&#x0D;

Analysing the Presence of Enslaved Black People in Ancient Java Society

Since the 7th century, Java has been one of the trading centres of Southeast Asia. It is recorded in an inscription in Java which contains several terms that indicate the presence of foreigners in old Javanese society, including enslaved Black people. The research questions posed include: Who are they? How did they get to Java? What was their role in Javanese society? The data used for this research are inscriptions, Chinese news sources, and contemporary literary texts. Its information was analysed and classified to determine its origin and presence in Java. The results showed that there were several enslaved Black people in Java. Based on the term used to describe them, they came from East Africa and Papua. Implicitly, the brief information shows that the existence of enslaved Black people in Java was linked to the trade conducted by Persians and people from East Indonesia. It shows that work in Java from the 7th century AD to the 15th century AD was performed with various nations. The king used the existence of enslaved Black people in Java as a way to gain spiritual "strength" from their skin colour, which was different from the Javanese society. Its belief continued until the time of the Islamic Mataram Kingdom with the presence of the Palawija courtiers, a group of disabled people who were considered a sign of the king's greatness.

PRESERVATION OF RAMMED EARTH STRUCTURES THROUGH TRADITIONAL METHODS: CASE STUDY

This paper describes the research carried out around a high heritage value construction, the Torre Muza de Benifaió in Valencia (Spain). The tower is a defensive building from the Spanish Arab period, built during the 11th and 12th centuries AD. When the studies began, it was abandoned, in a dilapidated state, and slight information was known. Therefore, following extensive and multidisciplinary work was the starting point to recognizing the critical aspects of its history, damage, and current condition. Particularly noteworthy is the specific characterization of the traditional rammed earth construction system and the materials that made it up. All this was performed based on historical research, laser 3D scanning, and complementary characterization studies (physical, chemical, and mechanical) with the vision of the whole and surroundings. With all this, it was possible to determine the recovery of the walls following the same construction technique, although differentiating their specific execution. These preliminary studies allow a respectful consolidation and recovery of the construction and ensure the compatibility and integration of the materials and the intervention. This paper remarks on the importance of multidisciplinary preliminary studies to develop proper preservation of vernacular techniques and heritage architecture.