3rd Century BC Research Articles

Geochemical Features of Fallow Land in Ancient Plots in the Chora of Chersonesos

The ancient city of Chersonesos created an agricultural zone in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC (under the conditions of climate aridization); this zone was initially used for viticulture and the export of wine, and grain farming later developed at the distant chora (in North-Western (NW) Crimea). The purpose of our work was to verify whether the ampeloecological conditions, especially the geochemical features of the soil and rock, limited viticulture in NW Crimea. Fallow lands in 13 plots in the near and distant chora of Chersonesos were studied using ampelopedology; specifically, we compared agrochemical properties and the concentrations of macro- and trace elements in the renaturation soil horizon and in the parent rock. The main differences between the soils of the two regions were determined by the accumulation of cinnamonic soils of Chersonesos Si, K, Fe, Al, P2O5; in the distant chora, there are specific elements, including V, Pb, Rb, Cr. The climate and the biogeochemical diversity of soils and rock could be significant factors causing the differences in wine quality in the two regions of western Crimea; these factors are still reflected in modern viticultural practices when using the concept of “terroir”. These findings are consistent with the different roles of ancient viticulture in SW (South-Western) and NW (North-Western) Crimea (i.e., export and local consumption, respectively), which have been highlighted by historians.

Embalmed heads of the Celtic Iron Age in the south of France

Ancient texts described that one of the most impressive ritual practices of the Celts during the Iron Age was to remove the heads of enemies killed in battle and to embalm them for display in front of the victors dwellings. An archaeological settlement excavation site in Le Cailar, in southern France, has revealed a considerable number of examples of this practice. It was documented by Classical authors and later by the archaeological recording of iconographic representations and skeletal remains of human heads. Weapons were also exhibited alongside the severed heads. Here we report the results of chemical investigations for the characterization of the biomarkers of embalming that are likely to be present in eleven fragments of these human cranial remains. These results may lead to answers to some of the archaeometric questions related to the subject of embalming in 3rd century BC Transalpine Gaul, thus advancing the knowledge of these ritual practices, documented by Greek Classical authors as part of the wider research into the proto-historic societies of the Mediterranean coastal region.

Exchanges in Royal Imagery across the Iranian World, 3rd Century BC – 3rd Century AD

Abstract The period between the 3rd century BC and the 3rd century AD saw the establishment of two supra-regional states in the Iranian world, first the Arsacid and then the Kushan Empire. The patterns of imperial imagery elaborated by the Arsacids became the reference and were adopted by many of the successive dynasties, starting with the Kushan themselves. Chorasmia was exposed to such influences, and the coin series of its first kings show the interplay between local features and elements coming from both Arsacid Parthia and the Kushan Empire.

Shipping amphorae and shipping sheep? Livestock mobility in the north-east Iberian peninsula during the Iron Age based on strontium isotopic analyses of sheep and goat tooth enamel.

Animal mobility is a common strategy to overcome scarcity of food and the related over-grazing of pastures. It is also essential to reduce the inbreeding rate of animal populations, which is known to have a negative impact on fertility and productivity. The present paper shows the geographic range of sheep provisioning in different phases of occupation at the Iron Age site of Turó de la Font de la Canya (7th to 3rd centuries BC). Strontium isotope ratios from 34 archaeological sheep and goat enamel, two archaeological bones and 14 modern tree leaves are presented. The isotopic results suggest that sheep and goats consumed at the site were reared locally (within a few kilometres radius) during the whole period of occupation. The paper discusses the isotopic results in light of the socio-political structure of this period, as complex, strongly territorial societies developed during the Iron Age in the north-east Iberian Peninsula.

MITOCHONDRIAL DNA ANALYSIS OF ANCIENT DOMESTIC GOAT IN THE MONGOLIA

Food and agricultural production sector, especially livestock production is vital for Mongolia’s economic and social development. The five breeds of livestock – cattle, horses, sheep, goats and camels, have always been directly related to the history, culture and economy of Mongolia. It is undeniable that these five breeds of livestock are considered as an important asset of the Mongolian economy as well as guarantee of national security. Out of the five breeds, small livestock including sheep and goats account for more than 80% of the total livestock population (according to the National Statistical Office data). It is not hard to retrieve research and recorded materials about the morphology or the economic productivity of these breeds and their sub-breeds. However, the development of society now demands higher yield from the livestock animals. Genetically, the a1, a2, a3 and a4 samples appertaining to some 3,000 years ago are substantially different from the haplogroups. However, judging by the phylogenetic tree the 800 year-old samples, as compared to the phylogroups of the 3rd century BC, are closer to the modern samples. Alongside this, from molecular distance we find that the M1 haplogroup is a sample belonging to the 3rd century BC, which had separated the earliest, while the aforementioned 800 year-old sample separates at a later period, which chronologically is convincing. But the a6 ancient sample conforms to the B haplogroup and the a8 or the sample of 800 years ago is in the same haplogroup as the sample of the 3rd century BC. However, the a6 sample obtained from the 3rd century BC tombs obtained sample was the origin of modern goats that can be included in haplogroup B.

Paleoecology of the ancient city of Tanais (3RD century BC–5TH century AD) on the north-eastern coast of the sea of Azov (Russia)

The key events in the history of the antique city of Tanais were considered against a background of the climate change starting from the 3rd century BC and ending at the 5th century AD. For reconstructing climatic changes during the city existence, we used palynological, microbiomorphic and paleopedological analyses of paleosols and cultural layers of Tanais and neighboring settlements. The antique city was located on the right bank of the Tanais (Don) River near its entering the Sea of Azov and exercised trade and economic relations with the barbarian (nomadic) population that inhabited the steppes near the Don River and the Sea of Azov in the Early Iron Age. It was shown that the foundation of Tanais in the 3rd century BC and its growth through the 2nd century BC took place in climatic conditions, comparable to those of the modern period. The most devastating conquest of the city by Bosporus King Polemon occurred in the late 1st century BC, when the climate aridity reached its peak and the city of Tanais probably suffered from an economic crisis. The study of the chronosequence of soils buried under stone walls of the city and other settlements nearby at different times revealed a decrease of organic carbon and an increase carbonate and gypsum contents in the paleosols since the 3rd century BC till the beginning of the 2nd century AD. Those data confirm a strong climatic aridization at the turn of the eras. As follows from the pollen analysis, throughout the whole period of the city existence it was surrounded by steppe communities, but the coniferous (pine) pollen was also found in the spectra of all chrono-intervals. The highest proportion of pollen of cultivated plants and weed (4–6%) is found in the assemblages attributable to the first period of the city life (the 2nd-1st centuries BC). The analysis of microbiomorphs agreed with the pollen data and provided additional data on the wood and reed having been widely used in economical activities of population in the first period of the city existence. From the middle of the 2nd to the late 4th centuries AD the climate conditions may be considered to be humid and favorable for bioproductivity. Another wave of aridity was recorded at the boundary of the 4th and 5th centuries AD. At the end of the 5th century AD the city ceased to exist.

The early iron metallurgy in the Siberian Arctic

Archaeological excavations conducted at the settlement-sanctuary of Ust-Polui, located just north of the Arctic Circle in Western Siberia yielded the oldest remains of early iron production in the Circumpolar region of Asia. Ust-Polui archaeological finds associated with metallurgy of iron are dated back to the 3rd century BC – 2nd century AD. Hence the finds date the origins of metallurgical technologies used in the north of Western Siberia virtually several centuries back in time and geographically extend the spread of iron metallurgy between the eras significantly. It seems that Ust-Polui is the most northern point on the Earth where iron metallurgy was developed by ancient people. The discovery of new iron production site poses an important question – what are the reasons and ways of appearance of the iron smelting technologies in the Polar North of Siberia? It is possible that all knowledge was obtained from outside via contacts with metal producing societies, who lived in the eastern regions of the Ural Mountains (to the southwest of Ust-Polui), and knew how to produce iron about two thousand years ago.

OLBIAN TERRACOTTA BUSTS WITH HANDMADE CUPS AND ADORNMENTS

Analysed is a series of bust thymiateria with handmade details: stephanes, earrings, and buttons fastening chiton on shoulders. Handmade cups on their heads were not the headdress, but the functional details, and were probably used in some rituals as containers for incenses. A detailed analysis shows that several of them were produced in a single mould, two items produced not in Olbia, and on some of them tainia on the personage’s head were shown already in a mould. It is traced that the busts are close to Olbian semi-figures of bigger size with more elaborate, though also handmade, adorations. Stylistically, this group can be dated by the first half of the 3rd century BC. Almost all of them come from the excavations at dwelling quarters and were probably used in family cults. They were often found with other terracottas’ fragments, namely, with images of the Mother of the Gods and Dionysus.
 These busts belong to one of several groups of Hellenistic thymiateria. They are the least definite for attribution. Personages of other groups present the reliable features of their relation to the cults of the Mother of the Gods, Aphrodite, and Dionysus. Similar thymiateria from other Ancient Greek centres represent images of the same circle of the gods. Here, an attention to decorations and the clothes can only indirectly indicate for an image of Aphrodite or a participant of her cult, while spherical adornments attached most often to the temples, together with tainia on the heads of several items, can be hypothetically a part of a wreath made of ivy fruits, as on the heads of Dionysiac characters. Consequently, there are no reliable grounds yet for a definite attribution of these thymiateria’s images. There are also no grounds to see Demeter or Kore-Persephone in them. The study of other groups of Olbian busts-thymiateria is perspective for the further attribution.

Diagoras of Cyprus (3rd century bc) – an eminent oculist and opposer to the use of opium

Diagoras of Cyprus (3rd century bc) – an eminent oculist and opposer to the use of opium

The footprints of neuroscience in Alexandria during the 3rd-century BC: Herophilus and Erasistratus.

In the first half of the 3rd-century BC in Alexandria, the Greek physicians Herophilus of Chalcedon (ca. 330 to ca. 260 BC) and Erasistratus of Chios (ca. 315 to ca. 240 BC) became the first scientists in antiquity to comprehensively study the anatomical underpinnings and the physiological properties of mind processes. Their scientific theories were based on experimental evidence arising from anatomical human dissection studies. Among their neuroscientific achievements were the discovery of the cranial nerves, the meninges, the dural sinuses and the ventricles; the delineation of the motor and sensory nerves; the appraisal of the brain as the seat of consciousness and human intellect; and the attribution of neurological disease to dysfunction of the nervous system. This paper will discuss the short-lived historical circumstances that enabled the ground-breaking progress in the domain of brain sciences during the Hellenistic period. In addition, this paper will examine the intriguing social, political and cultural interplays that determined the resonance of Herophilus and Erasistratus's work and influenced the course of history of neuroscience.

The provenance of Kul Tepe obsidian artifacts: Syunik and the highlands of Armenia as possible seasonal pastureland

Excavations at the site of Kul Tepe in the Jolfa region in north-western Iran have unearthed various archaeological materials from Late Neolithic/Early Chalcolithic to Achaemenid periods (end of 6th millennium to 3rd century BC). During the Chalcolithic and the Bronze Age most lithic tools used in Kul Tepe were made of obsidian. From the first and second excavation seasons, 53 and 32 obsidian samples were selected and analyzed by pXRF. According to the results, the main source of obsidian for the workshops in Kul Tepe was Syunik, but other sources in the Lake Sevan Basin like Ghegam, Bazenk, Choraphor and Gutansar and the Lake Van region (Nemrut Dağ and Meydan Dağ) were utilized also.

Neoplatonic Symbolism by Michelangelo in Sistine Chapel's Separation of Light from Darkness.

Upon discovery of Michelangelo's concealed neuroanatomical images in "Separation of Light from Darkness," by Suk and Tamargo in 2010, there remained a compelling need to investigate in greater detail the reasoning behind Michelangelo's depiction of imagery of the brain, brainstem, spinal cord, eyeballs and optic nerves in the Sistine Chapel. At cursory glance, "Separation of Light from Darkness" depicts God's first act of Genesis 1:3-5 (King James Bible), in which he creates light and separates it from the darkness, enveloping the world he has just created. It is a seemingly simple, conspicuous act, but careful analysis reveals that Michelangelo used his artistic, academic, and poetic genius to embed layers of symbolic meanings. The authors believe that the great artist infused a visual metaphor of a scene from Plato's "Allegory of the Cave" in Book VII of The Republik (~380BC) to represent his key ideologies in Neoplatonism and pious convictions Michelangelo painted the Sistine Chapel during the flourishing period of High Renaissance (~1475-1527). High Renaissance art followed and reflected the period of 'rebirth' in which philosophy, literature, art, and sciences drew on ancient knowledge from Classical Antiquity, principally the ancient Greeks. The Renaissance was a period of rapid growth where people applied new found knowledge to the Classical Greek studies of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle (from about the 4th to 3rd century BC). One of the most influential ancient philosophers was Plato (~428-348 BC) whose teachings propagated throughout Athens for about two centuries around his lifetime, through his established school, the Academy. His philosophy of Neoplatonism was resurrected by an Italian baron, Cosimo I de Medici who employed Marsilio Ficino (1433-99) to lead the Florentine Platonic Academy (of which Michelangelo was a student) and translate all of Plato's writings into Latin Through analysis of Michelangelo's paintings, his preliminary sketches, poems, written letters, and the political and religious context of his time, the authors attempt to provide key evidence to reveal the meaning and symbolism behind Michelangelo's concealed anatomic representations.

Mystery of ‘Perfect Numbers’ Resolved – Perfect Number Is Always Even and Predictable

In number theory, a perfect number is a positive integer that is equal to the sum of its proper positive divisors, excluding the number itself. In other words, a perfect number is a number that is half the sum of all of its positive divisors (including itself) i.e. σ1(n) = 2n. To explain in practical terms, we elaborate first few Perfect Numbers. It may be noted that ‘Perfect Numbers’ are sparse are thinly dispersed. Starting from 3rd Century BC, mathematicians are working on Perfect Numbers. Till April 2018, i.e. during last 2300 years active research, researchers could recognize only 50 perfect numbers. There are 2 perfect numbers in first 100 and 4 in first million. Absolute distance between two perfect numbers increase exponentially as you go higher to the next perfect number . One can find at least one perfect number till 4 digit numbers, and then it becomes a real rarity. Subsequent perfect numbers appears at 8, 10, 12 and 19 digits. 15th perfect number has 770 digits while 16th have 1327 digits. 25th perfect number has 13066 digits. 50th perfect number has 46,498,850 digits. We found that perfect number is always predictable by using formula 1 (p) 0 (p-1) where 1 and 0 are binary digits and p = count of binary digit. We also argue that if any binary number 1...(p) 0 (p-1) if perfect number, will always an even number. We also observed that first known 50 perfect number ends with 6 or 28 as last one or two digits. Therefore a perfect number is always predictable and even.

Literary evidence for taro in the ancient Mediterranean: A chronology of names and uses in a multilingual world.

Taro, Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott, is a vegetable and starchy root crop cultivated in Asia, Oceania, the Americas, Africa, and the Mediterranean. Very little is known about its early history in the Mediterranean, which previous authors have sought to trace through Classical (Greek and Latin) texts that record the name colocasia (including cognates) from the 3rd century BC onwards. In ancient literature, however, this name also refers to the sacred lotus, Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. and its edible rhizome. Like taro, lotus is an alien introduction to the Mediterranean, and there has been considerable confusion regarding the true identity of plants referred to as colocasia in ancient literature. Another early name used to indicate taro was arum, a name already attested from the 4th century BC. Today, this name refers to Arum, an aroid genus native to West Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean. Our aim is to explore historical references to taro in order to clarify when and through which routes this plant reached the Mediterranean. To investigate Greek and Latin texts, we performed a search using the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae (TLG) and the Thesaurus Linguae Latinae (TLL), plus commentaries and English and French translations of original texts. Results show that while in the early Greek and Latin literature the name kolokasia (Greek κολοκάσια) and its Latin equivalent colocasia refer to Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn., after the 4th century AD a poorly understood linguistic shift occurs, and colocasia becomes the name for taro. We also found that aron (Greek ἄρον) and its Latin equivalent arum are names used to indicate taro from the 3rd century BC and possibly earlier.

Disruption in an alluvial landscape: Settlement and environment dynamics on the alluvium of the river Dyje at the Pohansko archaeological site (Czech Republic)

Floodplain alluvia can provide a combination of natural and anthropogenic evidence of environmental changes, allowing to directly examine their evolution in relation to settlement dynamics. Such evidence is recorded, for example, at the archaeological site Pohansko by the town of Břeclav, a former centre of the Great Moravian Empire. The aim of our research was to explore what conditions on the floodplain could have caused the abandonment of this environment. Special attention was paid to the climax of the floodplain's occupation during the times of the Great Moravian Empire (AD 836–906) and to the decline of its occupation in the following centuries. The environmental record at the Pohansko site starts in the 7th century BC. From the Iron Age onwards (Hallstatt and La Tène periods) there is evidence of non-agricultural human activities. Since the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC to at least the second half of the 10th century AD, there is no record of any floodplain aggradation or flooding at the site. Later, both the archaeological and palaeoecological records on the floodplain probably got exposed and redeposited. The result is a mechanically disturbed layer that is synchronous with soil horizons and subsequent Early Mediaeval cultural layers covering sandy elevations. For an unknown reason, the site was deserted for many centuries after the end of the 10th century AD. During the High Mediaeval period and the early Modern Era, especially since the 15th century AD, overbank deposits covered the floodplain. Intensified human impact in the river catchment and climate change during the Little Ice Age were the main triggers of this change. The results correlate with the written historical sources pertaining to this area, which speak about an increasing frequency of flooding in the Czech lands since the 14th century, and especially in the second half of the 16th century. As a result, these sites became unsuitable for settlement and abandoned.

Скляний посуд V—I ст. до н. е. з розкопок Тіри

The core-formed glass vessels from the excavation of the ancient city of Tyras in 1959-2001 are analyzed in the paper. Materials are kept in the the Institute of archaeology (Kyiv) and the Odesa Archaeological Museum of the NAS Ukraine. All vessels are fragmented. Thirteen fragments of amphoriskoi, alabastra, oenochoai and unguentaria have been examined. The first glass vessels have been delivered to the city during ca. 5th - early 4th centuries BC. The fragment of oenochoe (mid-4th - early 3rd centuries BC) can reflect the ties of Tyras with the West Mediterranean basin, probably Italy. Most fragments are dated to the 3rd-2nd centuries BC and were the parts of amphoriskoi and unguentaria. Similar amphoriskoi were discovered in the workshop on Rhodes. The finds of these fragments are the evidence of the trade and economic relations between Tyras and Rhodes. The last period when core-formed glass flacons entered Tyras is marked by the fragments of vessels of the late 2nd - early 1st centuries BC. They were supposedly produced in Syria andPalestine region and on Cyprus. Glass vessels were rather expensive and their finds could be considered as the indicator of the wealth of population. The glass of the Hellenistic period in Tyras are better represented by typological variety than anywhere in the Black Sea north region. The analyzed materials fill the gaps in general picture of the dynamics of import of this type of goods to the cities of North Pontic area and are the valuable source for the further research.

Making pottery in the Nile Delta: ceramic provenance and technology at Naukratis, 6th–3rd centuries BC

The interdisciplinary study of Egyptian- and Greek-style pottery found in the Nile Delta aims to test and expand the potential of different scientific methods to identify regional variation and cultural traditions in ceramic fabrics from a relatively uniform geological setting. Neutron activation analysis (NAA), polarised light microscopy and SEM-EDX analyses were used to examine raw materials and technological tradition in 32 objects, including 15 previously partly analysed pieces, chosen to test the hypotheses of (a) chemical and (b) technological variation between regionally and/or culturally distinct pottery traditions. Several hundred published NAA data from other studies of Egyptian ceramics were re-assessed within this work. Our NAA results confirmed that all 28 objects analysed originated in Egypt, but could not distinguish production centres. Polarised light microscopy clarified the chaine operatoire and highlighted Greek and Egyptian technological traditions and regional variations in the production of macroscopically similar ware (e.g. Black Ware). SEM-EDX was essential in distinguishing different recipes used for slips, suggesting patterns of technological transfer and adaptation.

Корейский полуостров и Японские острова: сложение особенностей и заимствование культурных традиций в эпоху палеометалла (материалы к учебному курсу «Археология зарубежной Азии»)

Purpose. The period of the most intensive contacts of the ancient population of the Korean peninsula and the Japanese Islands (3rd – 7th centuries AD) is of special interest for study. The period witnessed a wide spread of the tradition of building burial mounds (kurgans). Due to the artifacts found in the kurgans, it becomes possible to study various aspects of the people’s social life, including cultural contacts. We aimed at studying territorial alliances based on the cultural and historical background, such as the spread of agriculture based on wet rice cultivation, bronze and iron production, the emergence of states. Results. The kurgan tradition on the Korean peninsula is associated with the era of the Three Kingdoms (3rd – 7th centuries AD). The tradition of erecting mounds started in Koguryo state in the 1st century BC, then from the 3rd century AD it continued in Baekje, Silla and Kaya, and disappeared in the middle of the 6th century AD because of adopting Buddhism. Common barrows had stone embankments, but they are also found with earthen mounds. Burial chambers were first constructed vertically, then horizontal ones appeared. On the Japanese Islands, kurgans first appeared during the Yayoi period (3rd century BC – 3rd century AD) and were widely constructed during the Kofun period (3rd – 7th centuries AD). The barrows had earthen embankments with burial chambers inside. The barrows differed in the form of their embankment and size. The burials of the Kofun period in Japan continued the Yayoi period traditions to a certain extent. They had earthen embankments and were decorated with bronze mirrors and stone ornaments in the burial chambers. In addition, their feature is clay haniva figurines around the perimeter of the embankment. Starting from approximately the 5th century AD, there began to appear a certain homogeneity in the funerary structures of the Korean peninsula and the Japanese archipelago. Sueci ceramics became a typical element of the funeral rite, as well as bronze and iron objects, gold jewelry and luxury items which appeared in burial chambers. The construction of kurgans acquired some new features, such as stone chambers with side corridors. Both on the Korean Peninsula and the Japanese Islands, we observe similar types of embankments, such as round (embun), square (ho:fun), double round (so:embun), double square (so:ho:fun) and in the form of a “Japanese sea scallop” (hatategaishikikofun). Conclusion. The study of the structural features of the kurgans on the Korean Peninsula and the Japanese Islands allows us to conclude that there are similarities in the forms and materials of embankments and the forms of burial chamber construction. The main difference is the larger size of Japanese kurgans. The similarities we revealed can be explained by the mutual influence of the population of the Korean peninsula and the Japanese islands.

Monede şi „vârfuri de săgeţi” descoperite recent la Argamum şi Enisala / Coins and „arrowheads” recently discovered at Argamum and Enisala

Materialul mai jos prezentat provine din cercetările arheologice organizate în cadrul proiectului „ ANR‐ Pont Euxin. Orgamè, nécropole et territoire”, coordonat de Alexandre Baralis (Musée du Louvre) și Vasilica Lungu (ISSEE). Dintre cele 16 monede, cele mai multe datează din perioada secolelor VI– III a. Chr. și epoca Imperiului roman târziu, după cum urmează : cinci „ vârfuri de săgeţi”, o monedă istriană de tip Apollo din seria timpurie, o mică piesă grecească dificil de încadrat cronologic și nouă nummi din secolul IV (între care o imitație), în succesiune cronologică de la Constantin I la Valens. În ciuda numărului mic, monedele din catalogul de mai jos completează informațiile cunoscute până acum, inclusiv cu două exemplare mai rar întâlnite. Acestea confirmă un nivel ridicat al activităţilor comerciale la Orgame/ Argamum și împrejurimi în secolele VI– IV a. Chr., dar și în epoca Dominatului, așa cum atestă cel puțin trei tezaure mari de „ vârfuri de săgeţi”, de asemenea un tezaur monetar important și mai multe piese descoperite izolat, datând din secolul IV p. Chr.

К основным этапам этнополитической истории саков-хаумаварга

In the beginning of the I Millennium BC on the territory of ancient Central Asia a special ethnopolitical union of nomadic people was formed, known in ancient Persian sources as the Saka haumavarga. They are most often referred to as Sakas, who worshiped or prepared the sacred drink of haoma. This article systematically investigates the process of formation and historical development of the ethno-political union of the Saka haumavarga as one of the most powerful associations of ancient nomads in Central Asia. Special attention is also paid to the issue of various features which formed this group of nomads. In addition, the aim of the study was to examine the influence of external factors on the integration of pastoral populations in isolated mountainous areas of PamirAlay as this phenomenon is poorly understood. The process of formation of ethno-political education of the Saka haumavarga was rather lengthy - supposedly having been completed at the turn of the 7th – 6th centuries BC. In the second half of the 6th century BC the Saka haumavarga are occupied by the Achaemenid Empire and forced to pay taxes and supply military contingents of the Persian kings. Around the turn of the 5th and 4th centuries BC they are freed of their subordination. After the conquest of Central Asia by Alexander the Great, they establish a variety of relations with the Hellenistic states. Despite cool relations with the Greco-Bactria, there is evidence of the presence of mercenaries from the Saka haumavarga within the troops of this Hellenistic kingdom. At the turn of the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC as a result of military activity of the Greco-Bactrian kings, a reduction of territory of this Saka haumavarga union commences its gradual decline. The final collapse of this ethno-political group occurs towards the end of the 2nd century BC, as small independent tribes of local nomads are known to be the only inhabitants of the Pamir-Alay territory at this point in time.