3rd Century BC Research Articles

ABOUT NEW FINDS OF THE HORSE HARNESS OF SCYTHIAN-SARMATIAN AGE FROM ZAKUBANYE

The article introduces into the scientific circulation the objects of the horse harness of the Scythian and Sarmatian time, found at different times by local residents and local historians of the village of Voznesenskaya, Labinsky district, Krasnodar region of the Russian Federation, and located in the local children’s library-museum. A notable feature of some of the published iron loopy bridle bits are the large sizes of their links (up to 30 cm). This probably indicates a dilution in the second half of the 1st millennium BC in Zakubanye of a large-breed horse breed, which was the forerunner of the famous Kabardian breed of these animals. Its origins, the eminent archeologist-кavkazologyst, E. I. Krupnov traced to the beginning of the early Iron Age. The subject of consideration of the authors of the article are also the features of the cross-shaped nozzles with spikes, which are available on a number of published looped rods, or on their individual links. Most of the presented «cross-shaped nozzles» on the bits (Fig. 1: 2, 4—5; 2: 2) may be ultimately described, following I. I. Marchenko, as a psalm in the form of a small cross with flattened sharp curved spikes. Functionally, «strict» cheek-pieces and nozzles performed the same role. As shown by E. I. Savchenko, they were located at the outer rings of the rods and when the reins were tensioned, they pressed on the toothless edges of the horse’s jaw. Three separate types of specimens can be distinguished from those who are separately from the angled duplicates: 1. bipods (Fig. 3: 4, 5); 2. rod short straight two types — a specimen tapering towards the ends (Fig. 3: 6) and a sample with cylindrical grooved processes extending from the holes (Fig. 3: 7); 3. S-visible with knobs on the ends (Fig. 3: 1—3).
 The published bits and cheek-pieces belong to the types common in the Northern Black Sea Region and the Northern Caucasus dating back to the 5th—1st cc. BC. At the same time, most of them may have a narrower dating. For the bits with one broken off outer ring (Fig. 2: 1), the date should be marked — the end of IV—III c. BC. For bits in Fig. 2: 2, as well as links of samples like them depicted in Fig. 1: 2, 4, 5, one can accept the date of I. I. Marchenko — IV — first half of the 3rd century BC. Link fished with a hat may be attributed to the IV BC, as having a parallel in the Melitopol mound. Date of duplicated cheek-pieces with two lobes (Fig. 3: 4) — III — first half of I c. BC. Rod duplicated cheek-pieces (Fig. 3: 6, 7) may date to the 4th—3rd centuries BC, S-visible, most likely, the early period of this time period.
 The items presented in the article characterize the occupation of the local Meotian population by horse breeding, which since Pre-Scythian time has been one of the most important economic branches of the autochthons of Zakubanye.

The Messapic Site of Muro Leccese: New Results from Integrated Geophysical and Archaeological Surveys

The regular application of geophysical survey techniques to evaluate archaeological sites is well established as a method for locating, defining, and mapping buried archaeological materials. However, it is not always feasible to apply a range of different methods over a particular site or landscape due to constraints in time or funding. This paper addresses the integrated application of three geophysical survey methods over an important archaeological site located in south Italy. In particular, it is focused on the results achieved from a past geophysical survey and the ongoing excavations performed by archaeologists in the site of Muro Leccese. Muro Leccese (Lecce) is one of the most important Messapian archaeological sites in southern Italy. The archaeological interest of the site was generated since the discovery of the remains of Messapian walls (late 4th–3rd centuries BC). With the aim of widening the archaeological knowledge of the Messapian settlement, several integrated methods, including magnetometry, ground-penetrating radar, and electrical resistivity tomography were used on site to fulfill a number of different research objectives. Since the most important targets were expected to be located at shallow soil depth, a three-dimensional (3D) ground-penetrating radar (GPR) survey was carried out in two zones, which were labeled respectively as zone 1 and zone 2, and were both quite close to the archaeological excavations. The GPR investigations were integrated with a 3D electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) survey in zone 1 and with a magnetometric, in gradiometry configuration survey in zone 2. The integration of several techniques allowed mapping the structural remains of this area and leading the excavation project. The geophysical results show a good correspondence with the archaeological features that were found after the excavation. Current work on the geophysical survey data using different codes for the processing of the data and merging different datasets using a Geographic Information System allowed achieving a user-friendly visualization that was presented to the archaeologists.

To the Issue of Robust Automatic Control Systems

This work is proposed to continue the discussion of the problems, theoretical foundations and practical features of the construction and synthesis of robust control systems with high gain, allowing us to control multidimensional nonlinear dynamic objects of high dimensional with functional uncertainties. If problems could not be solved at the level where they appeared, it is necessary to rise the level of understanding of the laws of nature, or in the words of master Lui-Shi Chun Qiu (China, 3rd century BC): "The boy of five chi growth leads the bull by the bridle and the bull obeys him in everything. This is because the person in this case follows naturalness" (the laws of nature). The judo philosophy ("soft way") is based on the principles of using the power and energy of the opponent to achieve victory. The purpose of this work is to demonstrate the theoretical aspects and practical features of the methods of synthesis of optimal control systems by the criterion of maximum reproduction accuracy using the example of robust systems, which allow to control dynamic objects with functional uncertainties, including unstable objects, no minimal-phase objects, neutral objects and objects with differentiation properties. The simplicity (at the level of the engineer) and universality, mathematical rigor and physical validity of this approach is based on the judo philosophy: suppressing the dynamics of a functionally uncertain object and external disturbances by the infinitely large gain with the finite control signal and at the same time maintaining sustainability. Theoretically exhaustive solution of the problem of robust control is given by the idea of constructing systems that are stable with an unlimited increase of the gain coefficient. The sustainability properties are valid for optimal systems that were synthesized using quadratic quality functionals that do not explicitly depend on the control signal, and using a restriction on the control signal. It is significant that in contrast to continuous systems with un-measurable disturbances and not well known control object (in which the conditions of invariance imply the use of infinitely large gain), in relay (discontinuous) systems the equivalent effect is achieved with the help of finite control signal. A nice bonus is the highest accuracy which leads to mathematically zero error of regulation, thus all error coefficients (of position, speed, acceleration, acceleration derivative, etc.) is also equal to zero in the presence of external and internal interferences. In fact, the optimal accuracy control system is equivalent to a system with astatism of the n-th order: the regulator contains n serial connected integrators.

Are Drugs Always the Proper Solution to Therapeutic Dilemmas? Non-drug Approaches to the Post-traumatic Stress "Waking Corpse" Syndrome.

Jules Cotard (1840-1889), a Parisian neurologist, described a syndrome of delirium negations which was later named after him. Some physicians in antiquity and medieval times, especially in Asia, have noticed this syndrome and categorized it as a symptom of melancholy. They have presented it as a "walking corpse syndrome", inflicting most probably veteran soldiers after suffering during ferocious battles, presenting the first cases of a post war traumatic stress disorder. Philotimus (3rd-2nd century BC) was the first to record it around 3rd century BC, and proposed a simple but pioneering treatment, by just putting a lead hat on the men's heads. Although various combined treatment strategies were proposed by modern psychiatry including pharmaceutical, electroconvulsive therapy, behavioural therapy and supportive psychotherapy, it seems that in antiquity a simple external intervention of supportive therapy was the main concept of confrontation, while drug administration was to be avoided.

Стеклянные сосуды, изготовленные в технике сердечника из Ольвии

В статье дана общая характеристика стеклянных сосудов закрытых форм из Ольвии. Анализ контекстов позволил проследить динамику их использования и закономерности распределения находок в пространстве города. Набор форм сосудов отражает их эволюцию на протяжении всего периода изготовления.

ЭТЮД ПО НУМИЗМАТИКЕ СЕВЕРНОГО ПРИЧЕРНОМОРЬЯ III В. ДО Н.Э.

ЭТЮД ПО НУМИЗМАТИКЕ СЕВЕРНОГО ПРИЧЕРНОМОРЬЯ III В. ДО Н.Э.

Origin and Circulation of Calcarenite Artifacts in the Area of Montescaglioso between 6th and 3rd Century BC: An Interdisciplinary Approach

The study of stone artifacts and their provenance is an important proxy for understanding the entangled relationship between humans and geological resources. In this paper, we explore the potentialities of an interdisciplinary approach combining in situ documentation of tool marks and characterization of stone types using a near infrared (NIR) portable probe. We argue that this protocol is useful for collecting screening data on objects that cannot be moved or sampled. NIR spectra describe textural and molecular features of the materials and can be used to achieve a preliminary characterization of raw materials. We present a case study from the territory of Montescaglioso (Basilicata, near Matera, Italy), where we combined the analysis of a calcarenite (limestone) quarry, in Masseria D’Alessio, which was exploited since the 6th century BC, as well as artifacts of the same chronology from surveys and excavations in the surroundings. The aim was to collect preliminary data about the distribution of the particular calcarenite extracted from the quarry and identify exploitation and trade patterns. The data were processed using multivariate statistics to highlight the relevant spectral information and perform supervised classification of spectral features. Documentation of tool marks and the process of stone working were combined with the spectral signature of the artifacts to link the stone types to the description of their extraction/carving methods.

ҐРУНТОВІ ПОХОВАННЯ АНТИЧНОГО МІНГЕЧЕВІРА (САМУНІСА)

The article is dedicated to the analysis of archeological excavation as a result of researches discovered in the Mingachevir conducted in the middle of the 20th century of the different type of underground burials of the ancient period. These burials are covered the significant historical period from the second half of the 1st millenium and the first century AD and are the important source of the scientific information on many issues of material and spiritual culture of the population of Caucasus Albania. Underground burials of the ancient period in the Mingachevir zone by the method of placing the deceased in them are divided into three types: 1) burials with a backbone stretched out on the back; 2) burials with a weakly crouched skeleton on the left or right side; 3) burials with a heavily crouched skeleton on the left or right side. The article gives a detailed analysis of all these three types of burials. The author of the article, along with a number of other researchers come to the conclusion that the first type of underground burial is considered to be innovation for the whole of the South Caucasus and its emergence is associated with the penetration of mobile tribes from the North Caucasus in particular the Scythian. Part of these Scythians finally settled in the Mingachevir zone and subsequently merged with the local population, which eventually leads to the appearance of a second type of underground burial in the form of underground graves with poorly crouched skeleton. The third type of underground burial of Mingachevir (Samunis) of the ancient period, namely burials with a heavily crouched skeleton belong to local autochthonous tribes, consolidation of which became the basis for the formation of the state of Caucasian Albania in the 4th – 3rd centuries BC. This type of underground burial has deep local roots and is based on centuries-old local funerary rituals.

تطور مفهوم الدبلوماسیة فى بلاد الیونان والشرق الأدنى خلال القرنین الرابع والثالث قبل المیلاد

يتناول هذا البحث الظروف السياسية التى مرت بها بلاد اليونان والشرق الأدنى خلال القرنين الرابع والثالث قبل الميلاد أى أدت فى نهاية الأمر إلى ظهور ما يعرف بالممالک الهللينيستية. ملکة البطالمة فى مصر وجنوب الشام، ومملکة السليوقيين فى شمال الشام والعراق وإيران وآسيا الصغرى ومملکة المقدونيين بزعامة أنتيجونوس فى مقدونيا وبلاد اليونان. يتناول البحث تطور مفهوم الدبلوماسية فى بلاد اليونان والشرق الأدنى خلال القرنين الرابع والثالث قبل الميلاد، ولاسيما أغلب المصطلحات المستخدمة فى العلاقات الدولية حتى اليوم، هى فى الأصل مصطلحات يونانية، ومن الأمثلة على ذلک کلمة الدبلوماسية، وهى کلمة يونانية مشتقة من دبلوما di/plwma، ومعناها الوثيقة الرسمية التى تطوى على نفسها والتى کانت تصدر عن الشخص الذى بيده السلطة العليا فى البلاد وتخول حاملها امتيازات خاصة، وتتضمن صفة المبعوث ومهمته. کما يتناول البحث أهم أنواع المعاهدات والسفارات وطبيعة کل منها. کما يتطرق البحث إلى ظهور القناصل والسفراء procenhtikoi ودورهم فى السياسة الدولية، وبخاصة فى إبرام المعاهدات proceni/a. Abstract: This paper deals with the political circumstances of Greece and the Near East during the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, which eventually led to the emergence of the Hellenistic kingdoms. The queen of the Ptolemies, the kingdom of the Seleucid and the Macedonian kingdom. The paper deals with the evolution of the concept of in the countries of Greece and the Near East during the fourth and third centuries BC, particular most of the terms used in international relations up till now are originally Greek terms, for example the word diplomacy, a Greek word derived from diplomacy di/plwma The official document, which is self-contained and issued by the person who holds the highest authority in the country and confers special privileges on the holder, including the status of the envoy and his mission. The study also deals with the most important types of treaties and embassies procenhtikoi and their nature. The research also looks at the emergence of consuls and ambassadors and their role in international politics, especially in the conclusion of treaties proceni/a.

The role of cadaveric dissections in current medical education: A critical review

Human cadaveric dissection has been utilised in medical education for centuries. Historical reports suggest that the ancient Greek physicians introduced human cadaveric dissection in medical schools in the 3rd century BC. With the advent of modern technology, the relevance of human cadaveric dissection has been critically evaluated in relation to modern medical curriculum. Some medical schools and universities have replaced cadaveric dissection with virtual or digital dissection. From the available evidence, it appears that virtual cadaveric dissection can be a useful adjunct in overcoming the limitations of traditional cadaveric dissection. This is evident in its ability to simulate real life situation during dissection of structures such as the neural and blood vessels.

El anillo ecuestre áureo de Molata de Casa Vieja, Almaciles (Puebla de Don Fadrique, Granada)

We here document an Iberian gold ring, which we have recently been able to study. It was found at some time between the late 1960s and mid-1980s, near Molata de Casa Vieja, one of the most important oppida in Alta Andalucia. The engraved bezel is of a schematic style, and derives from the iconic Iberian rider, ubiquitous on the pre–Roman coinage. It adds a new representation to this already rich corpus. The image of the rider was frequently used by the Iberian elite between the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. The ring is now par t of the collection of the Archaeological Museum of Murcia.

Les débuts de la monétarisation des échanges en Europe celtique (IIIe siècle-début du IIe siècle avant notre ère)

Nos connaissances sur le second âge du Fer ont considérablement évolué depuis 30 ans. Dans le domaine plus particulier de la numismatique, les recherches ont surtout porté sur la civilisation des oppida (fin IIe-Ier siècle avant notre ère), période où l’on constate une monétarisation déjà importante des activités économiques. Mais les réalités antérieures à l’apparition des oppida demeurent largement méconnues. En regardant plus en amont, dès le IIIe siècle avant notre ère, cette étude s’intéresse aux éléments déclencheurs de la monétarisation de l’économie dans les sociétés protohistoriques, en divers points ciblés de l’Europe. La transformation des systèmes d’échanges résulte-t-elle d’une modification structurelle des sociétés européennes ?

Neznámý keltský ¼statér – typ hlava Athény / čtyřnohé zvíře / Unknown Celtic ¼-stater of the Athena head / four-legged animal type

The article is focused on one unpublished ¼-stater (1.84 g) of the Athena head / four-legged animal type. The coin has been recently documented among collectors, and no finding provenance is known. Based on the typological and metrological analyses, it is possible to take hypothetically in mind the Bohemian territory as the place of origin. It could be another 1/4-stater from the group of the so-called Bohemian local series. The hypothesis must be confirmed or disproved by further authentic finds. From the relative chronological point of view, the coin could be classified under the numismatic horizon A2, i.e. in the second half of the 3rd century BC.

Прижизненные травмы черепа у скотоводов Горного Алтая скифского и гунно-сарматского времени (V в. до н.э. – V в. н.э.)

This article describes healed cranial injuries in the Altai Mountains pastoralists of the Early Iron Age, the increased prevalence of which may testify to interpersonal violence aimed rather at injuring than killing the opponent. Skulls of more than 500 adults from burials of the Pazyryk (5th to 3rd century BC) and Bulan-Koba (2nd century BC to 5th century AD) cultures have been analyzed. On the world scale, the level of nonlethal violence among the Altai Mountains pastoralists was moderate (25.5 % in males and 9.1 % in females). The frequencies, however, differ between the southern and northern Pazyryk populations (males, 35.7 % vs. 15.3 %, respectively; females, 16.7 % vs. 5.6 %) and between the early and late periods of Bulan-Koba (males, 32.7 % vs. 22.1 %; females, 10.0 % vs. 6.3 %, respectively). The high prevalence of injuries among the Pazyryk people from the high-altitude valleys of the Southeastern and Southern Altai might indicate scramble for limited resources under a harsh climate, whereas the high frequency among the early Bulan-Koba pastoralists could have resulted from an infl ow of migrants. In the Xiongnu-Sarmatian period, as compared to the Scythian period, repeated injuries became more frequent among males. Interpersonal violence among the Altai Mountains pastoralists involved mainly blows to the face, but in the Bulan-Koba males blows on the head were more random. Healed face injuries in women were likely associated with domestic violence.

Konseptualisasi Hak-Hak Politik dalam Sejarah Periodesasi Demokrasi

The lower economic community is a strategic target for political actors to launch political actions and promises that signal interest. To anticipate this, efforts needed to increase an awareness of community politics which is not only limited to political actions and activities, but also includes knowledge about politics that can be started by understanding the nature of political rights correctly and comprehensively. Therefore, the purpose of writing this article is to describe the conceptualization of citizens' political rights traced based on the history of the use of the concept of democracy from various periods of time. The method used to compile this article is library research and data analyzed by inductive analysis models. The results obtained from the writing of this article are the conceptualization of the use of political rights based on the history of the use of democracy which began from the time of Ancient Greece (6th to 3rd century BC) until the 20th century.

TRACING THE ORIGIN OF JHAROKHA WINDOW USED IN INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

The Jharokha is a distinctive feature of the architecture of Indian Sub-continent of medieval times. The study of the built heritage features is a way to discover and know about the old culture and society. A Jharokha is an oriel window projecting from upper storeys of a building used in medieval Indian architecture. Jharokha window projecting from the wall face of the building in an upper storey overlooking a street, market or any other open space. This study aims to trace the origin of traditional Jharokha window used in Indian subcontinent. In order to do it, the available data and literature have been carefully reviewed and studied to draw inferences. This study shows that the trend of a protruding window similar to Jharokhas seems to be present in different regions with their regional architectural flavor. The Indian architecture has influenced by various empires, and a lot of external influences came to this region because of the trade route. The external and regional influences have been studied to investigate the Jharokha window origin and form. The 3rd century BC balconies in Mauriyan Empire seems to amalgamate with the windows of Islamic architecture and developed finally into a local window form in the shape of Jharokha. The style and features of Jharokha vary concerning the local material and techniques available. The different era and different regions adopted this window form according to their own needs and aesthetics.

Vorschläge zu dokumentarischen Texten

Abstract Corrections to six papyri dating to the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC and an ostracon from the Roman period. Among these texts are the well-known letter of Herodes (UPZ I 110), a fragmentary petition, and letters, both official and private.

La proibizione dei bacchanalia tra la Magna Grecia e l'Etruria

Summary In the Greek world, the celebrations of Dionysus were different: the Rural Dionysia and the City Dionysia, the Lenee, the Antestèrie, the Oscofòrie, the Ascalia and the Bacchanalia. During the Bacchanalia, women ran, danced and screamed in the woods, and fell prey to Dionysian inebriation. In 186 BC, the Roman Senate issued a decree that limited the cult of Bacchus Dionysus in Rome and in Italy, because of sexual abuses (see Livy, Ab Urbe condita 39. 8 – 39. 18). The diffusion of Bacchanalia was a risk for people and for the dignitas of Rome. In 1640 in Tiriolo, Calabria, during the excavation for the foundations of the so-called Palazzo Cicala, a bronze inscription and fragments of columns were found; the inscription had the original text of Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus with which, in 186 BC, the Roman Senate forbade the Bacchanalia. In Latium, during the excavation of the so-called Domus delle Pitture in Bolsena, directed by the École Française de Rome, between 1964 and 1982, a fragment of a throne's base and a cherub's leg were found in a layer of ashes in an underground room. Another 150 pieces of the throne, including ribbons and fragments of a panther head, were recovered in a specific spot of the room. Fragments, carefully restored and reassembled, compose an object called Trono delle Pantere of Bolsena, datable between the end of the 3rd century BC and the early years of the 2nd century BC. The left and rear sides are better preserved. The first represents a panther sitting on a throne with a cherub on his knees while it grabs at the ears of beast; the rear side represents a pattern with wings blocked by ribbons. The front side is completely destroyed. The throne has different sets of problems on its religious meaning and its decoration, where the Dionysiac theme is clear. The panther, the cherubs and the ribbons recall the Dionysus sphere, during which he was hidden inside a cave. Indeed, the underground room of Bolsena was appropriated to Bacchanalia. This paper intends to link Tiriolo and Bolsena, through the specific cases of two cities; in the first we have a proof of the enforcement of the law in 186 BC, and in the second we have an evidence of its application, with the destruction of a throne and of a Bacchic shrine.

Large earthquakes in the Katun Fault zone (Gorny Altai): Paleoseismological and archaeoseismological evidence

Paleoseismological and archaeoseismological research in the Katun Fault zone in Gorny Altai reveals soft-sediment deformation structures (SSDS) in Late Quaternary sediments that fill the Yaloman graben. SSDS (seismites) were produced by large paleoearthquakes (M ≥ 5–5.5) along the Katun Fault that occurred about 150 and 90 ka, in the 38–19 and 19–12.5 ka intervals, and after 12.5 ka. The event after 12.5 ka within the graben had a magnitude of Ms = 7.2–7.6. Traces of another event, shaking intensity I ≥ V (ESI 2007 intensity scale), timed in the range from the 3rd century BC to the 1st century AD, were discovered during studies of a Scythian necropolis at the Chultukov Log 1 site located within the Manzherok graben in the northern end of the Katun Fault. Burial mounds near a mountain slope at the site are damaged by colluvium. Rocks of the same colluvium are scattered over 25 m off the slope and deform burial structures (cairns and stone rings, and inner stone walls of grave chambers), as well as the primary anatomical position of buried bodies, including those in burials not damaged by colluvium from outside. Thus, the Katun Fault was an active structure generating large earthquakes from the Middle Pleistocene through the Holocene.

Cuevas rituales ibéricas en el territorio de Kelin (ss. V-III a.C.).

La Meseta de Requena-Utiel, en el interior de la provincia de Valencia, constituyó en época ibérica el territorio de la ciudad de Kelin. Entre otros aspectos, dicho territorio destacó por presentar una elevada concentración de cuevas con materiales ibéricos, de las cuales claramente cinco son resultado de prácticas rituales en su interior. Estas cuevas rituales fueron espacios estrechamente ligados al proceso de territorialización acaecido en la zona entre los siglos V y III a.C. En el presente artículo planteamos una revisión de sus características, ajuares y cronologías, integrándolas en todo momento en el paisaje y entorno inmediato.