3rd Century BC Research Articles

Приозерное поселение начала эпохи железа в уральской тайге

The article presents the characteristics of the multi-temporal settlements that existed in the 8th—3rd centuries BC on the ruins of Shaitanskoe Lake II, a unique sanctuary of the beginning of the Bronze Age in the vicinity of the village Neivo-Rudyanka, Sverdlovsk Region. This is the first most fully investigated (1149 sq. m) site of the early Iron Age of the mountain-forest Trans-Urals, located on a low lakeside terrace. The ceramic and tool complexes of the Gamayun culture, descendants of the taiga tribes of Western Siberia, who came from the north, as well as the communities of the local Itkul’ and heterogeneous Iset’ cultures, characterize the inhabitants of the settlements as settled fishermen and hunters who were familiar with the basic producing economy (livestock maintenance, copper foundry). The absence of long-term stationary dwellings and a powerful cultural layer is typical for ancient seasonal summer camps and villages. The presence of a small amount of ceramics from Gorokhovo and Baitovo cultures documents forced relocation of a part of the population from the Tobol region into the Trans-Ural taiga in the 5th—3rd centuries BC, under the pressure of cattle-breeding tribes of the Sargat culture, ancient ancestors of the Hungarians, moving from the Ishim-Irtysh forest-steppe.

Остеологические материалы античного поселения Ивановка Северная в Восточном Крыму

The study of ancient settlements in Eastern Crimea is of great scientific importance. In 2017, Ivanovka Severnaya settlement was studied on the route of the Kerch — Feodosia highway under construction. Here, a series of pits was excavated, dating to the middle of the 4th — beginning of the 3rd centuries BC. Excavations most likely affected the outskirts of the ancient settlement. The osteological materials are very interesting. They are represented by the bones of horses, cows, sheep; the number of pig bones is relatively small. The settlement had a well-developed poultry. It is assumed that this is an agricultural settlement in the distant surrounding of the capital of the Bosporus Kingdom.

Ландшафтное окружение городищ и курганов скифского времени в донской лесостепи

The article offers a reconstruction of the landscape in the 6th—3rd centuries BC in the environs of 24 sites of Scyphoid and Gorodets archaeological cultures. Information on previous soil and palynological analyses is summarized, and the results of the latest studies of buried soils are published. A modern soil map offers an approximate view of the vegetation of the Don basin in the past. Hillforts and barrows of the Scyphoid culture are concentrated in the territories of typical forest steppe, while the fortified settlements of Gorodets are found in the more forested northern territory. This may be due to the difference in management systems, especially farming (tillage and slash-and-burn farming). Under the earthen defensive ramparts of all the studied hillforts of Early Iron Age, associated with forest valley-river landscapes, the soils with properties of forest formation have been identified, however, in many cases preserving the features of Chernozems of the drier Bronze Age. Qualities of paleosoils suggest the process of afforestation of river valleys and adjacent sections of watersheds at the beginning of Early Iron Age. Kurgans, which demonstrate the military-elitist appearance of the material culture and mobility of their creators, are situated in the interfluvial meadow-steppes and are separated from the nearest hillforts under the forests by the local relief. Localization of these and other sites confirms the existence of different economic and cultural types among the population of the Scythian era.

К изучению элементов культуры пазырыкцев Казахского Алтая по данным междисциплинарных исследований

The article presents the outcomes of the multidisciplinary research on the Berel kurgan no. 11 (4th—3rd centuries BC). Thanks to the permafrost lens, horse remains and organic objects were kept in the mound in perfect condition, which enabled the researchers to carry out a number of specific studies, including the palynological study of the contents of digestive tracts of 7 horses. General results of the implemented paleozoological studies of horse remains are described in the paper as well as decoration of the animals. The palynological analysis of the horse digestive tracts led to identification of 2 types of palynocomplexes: 1 — characterized by high pollen content of ligneous and early flowering herbaceous plants, sporadic fern and ground-pines; 2 — has a rich pollen composition made of herbaceous plants, common for steppe piedmonts of the Altay. These palynocomplex features might pertain to differences in the mountain pastures conditioned by the vertical zonality. Comparison of flowering dates of pollen-defined plants allowed suggesting the burial’s probable season. In the course of the burial, the horse bodies were covered with birch bark and branches of prairieweed, which could serve the purpose of sealing and embalming the objects and, hence, indicate the fact that ancient nomads were familiar with the aseptic and tanning properties of the plants. In general, horses were selected according to certain criteria for the accompanying burial, which is consistent with obtained results of the present palynological and palaeozoological studies.

Le littoral du Latium méridional et de la Campanie septentrionale entre le ixe et le iiie s. av. J.‑C.

Nous traitons ici des contacts et des réseaux d’échanges dans le Latium méridional et la Campanie septentrionale entre le ixe et le iiie s. av. J.‑C. Depuis le dernier quart du xxe s., plusieurs études menées dans ces espaces littoraux ont permis de mettre en lumière le dynamisme des échanges culturels et commerciaux dans cette région de rencontre de divers peuples méditerranéens. Ainsi l’association du régime des courants et des vents de la mer tyrrhénienne avec les particularités d’un littoral marécageux permet l’installation de nombreux mouillages et abris nécessaires pour le cabotage le long de la côte. Les navires qui s’y arrêtent peuvent alors profiter de produits locaux tels que le sel ou le vin. Un réseau dense de communication mariant voies fluviales, routes et chemins terrestres permet également d’intégrer dans cette économie les ressources de l’arrière-pays, comme le bois et la poix. Les sanctuaires semblent jouer un rôle particulier dans ce système complexe d’échanges : tout d’abord en tant que marqueurs du territoire mais aussi comme lieux de rencontre et d’asile où les commerçants peuvent profiter d’une protection divine pour leurs activités et leur voyage.

ON THE PROBABLE VERSION OF INTERPRETATION OF THE FORTIFICATION NEAR VELYKI BUDKY VILLAGE

Among the regions of distribution of the settlement sites on the Forest-Steppe of Dnieper Left-Bank area in Ukraine the Sula River basin is one of the least studied meanwhile it is primarily known for its large barrow necropolises. The most famous settlement is Basivka, and others are only briefly mentioned in the professional literature. Scholars do not agree on the purpose of some fortifications. They include the protective structures near Velyki Budky village. Large area, weak cultural layer, as well as the location within the fortified site of the mound necropolis where the height of some barrows is more than six meters, do not speak in favor of the settlement in the classical sense. Also the immediate vicinity of 2 km to the largest site in the region — Basivka settlement which existed since the end of the 6th century BC to the beginning of the 3rd century BC may supplement the above statement.
 This paper reveals the problem of the fortification interpretation near Velyki Budky village. Favorable topographic location on the cape of the Sula River right-bank which is formed by the confluence of the Khmelivka River gives additional natural protection and shows the strategic importance of the site. Overview of the plain area where the danger was most probable reaches 5—6 km. The author of the paper defends the position of certain «outpost» which protected the path to the weakest point of the Basivka settlement. Therefore, in his opinion, these sites should be considered the single system of fortifications.

К определению содержания этнонимов «савроматы» и «сарматы»

The tendency to transfer the early names of peoples to the later inhabitants of same places was characteristic for the historical and geographical genres of ancient literature, regardless of the kinship between them. In that way the ethnonym “Sauromatians” was used to name certain groups of the Eastern European steppes nomads until the first centuries AD, although an analysis of all the sources, including archaeological ones, suggests that Sauromatians cease to exist as an independent ethno political formation since the middle of 4th century BC, perhaps a little earlier. The reason for that was the migration of the South Ural nomads who had occupied the territory that previously belonged to the Sauromatians. Simultaneously with that process, a new ethnonym “Sirmati”, associated with Tanais (Don), appears in the works of ancient authors. The names “Sarmatia” and “Sarmatians” start to be mentioned increasingly since the 3rd century BC in written sources, including epigraphic ones. I believe, that indicates emerging of a new nomadic unity led by the Sarmatians east of the Don, located in the Volga-Ural steppes, existed before the beginning or middle of the 2nd century BC. Its disintegration is associated with the migrations of the first half – middle of the 2nd century BC, with the epicenter in Central Asia. These events led to significant changes in the ethnic composition of the population between Caspian Sea and the Dnieper, recorded by Strabo. Separate ethno-tribal associations were located here: Aors, Siraks, Roksolans, later Yazygs, Alans, with their own history and destiny, but all of them were often continued to be called Sarmatians in written sources. All this should be taken into account by modern researchers, since uncritical approach to the ancient authors often leads to incorrect historical reconstructions.

Neural networks and some practical applications in the field of artificial intelligence

Even since Antiquity, in ancient Greece 4th century BC, or in China, the 3rd century BC, but not only there, people have imagined and even created automatic mechanisms, mechanisms that somehow were trying to be shy replicas of real examples of intelligent life from nature, including replicas of Man’s creation, such as the first bronze man, but nonetheless, non-intelligent replicas. Subsequently, in the modern age, attempts have been made to simulate a human neural network, as well as the first steps towards artificially simulating the functioning of the human brain. We will present in this article concepts of neural networks and some practical applications in the field of artificial intelligence and their capabilities to simulate autonomous thinking through advanced programming and complex assimilation of large data sets, using the three major learning paradigms, namely: supervised learning, unsupervised learning, and reinforcement learning. All these new concepts, over the past 75 years, and the advances in information technology have led to the emergence and development of practical applications of artificial intelligence. In this way, the human dream of creation tends to live and fulfil itself, why not, even in the coming years.

Об антропологических связях скифов Северного Причерноморья и савромато-сарматского населения VI–III вв. до н. э.

Introduction. The article discusses the issue of possible connections of the Sauromat-Early Sarmatian population of the 6th – 3rd centuries BC of the Southern Urals, the Lower Volga region and the Lower Don with the synchronous groups of the Northern Black Sea region according to physical anthropology. This problem is directly related to the origin of the Scythians, which still remains controversial. The review of scientific literature has shown that the problem of anthropological relationships between these two groups of early nomads in Eastern Europe has not yet been considered. Methods and materials. Testing for the existence of models of ethnogenetic relationships was carried out using intergroup comparisons of craniometric data. Mass material on the early nomads of the Sauromat-Early Sarmatian period of the Southern Urals, the Lower Volga region, the Lower Don and the steppe Scythians of the Northern Black Sea region was processed by the canonical method, followed by the consideration of the proximity of Mahalanobis. For this, digital information on 48 male and 30 female craniological series was used. Results. The greatest morphological similarity with the eastern Sauromat-Early Sarmatian populations is possessed by an elite group from the royal kurgans (Aleksandropol and Zheltokamenka), as well as local groups from the Sivash and Nosak regions. In all compared groups, the type of ancient Eastern Caucasians prevails, which combined mesobrachicrania with a weakened horizontal facial profile at the upper level. Thus, the results of the study showed the presence of ethnogenetic relationships in the studied early nomads, which either confirms the hypothesis about the possible influence of the Sauromat-Early Sarmatian component on changes in the intragroup structure of the Northern Black Sea populations, or indicate the presence of a single genetic substrate of South Siberian origin.

К ВОПРОСУ О РАННЕЙ ДАТЕ ПЬЯНОБОРСКИХ ПАМЯТНИКОВ. Ч. 4-11: БРОНЗОВЫЕ НАКОНЕЧНИКИ СТРЕЛ

The paper continues a series of publications discussing the foundations of dating the beginning of the Piany Bor culture in the Kama region in following two aspects: fi rst, the grounds for the statements about the beginning of the culture in the 3rd century BC, and secondly, to what extent the fi nds in question correspond to the contemporary chronology. One of the categories is represented by bronze arrowheads. According to the results of unraveling the chains of references, almost all of them come down to the work by M.G. Moshkova in 1962 and K.F. Smirnov in 1961. In the 1980s, there were cardinal changes in the general chronology of theSarmatian cultures - while maintaining the main features of the rite and inventory of the cultures themselves, the dating of the transition of the Early Sarmatian to the Middle Sarmatian culture has changed from the 2nd century BC to the turn of the epochs. The complexes enabling the dating of the attributes have “rejuvenated”. Bronze arrowheads are still most characteristic of the Early Sarmatian culture, but the culture itself, according to new information, existed before the beginning of the 1st century AD. But, surprisingly, this did not affect the chronology of the local cultures. A review of the cases used by M.G. Moshkova, supplemented by new information, demonstrated that bronze arrowheads have been repeatedly found in the Middle and Late Sarmatian complexes. In certain cases, these are “amulets” made of very archaic types of arrows, and in others, these are items actually used in everyday life. Considering that the placement of arrows in burials of these periods is generally uncommon, it cannot be argued that the existence of arrows is strictly limited to the 3rd century BC. And the dating references of 60 years ago are unacceptable.

Ground-Penetrating Radar Prospections in Lecce Cathedral: New Data about the Crypt and the Structures under the Church

Lecce is a city located in the southern part of the Apulia region (south Italy). Its subsoil is rich in the remains of superimposed ancient settlements from the Messapian period (7th–3rd century BC) to the Roman, Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque periods. Lecce Cathedral is one of the most important buildings in the town. It was built in the 12th century and transformed in the 16th and 17th centuries. Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) surveys were carried out in the cathedral and its crypt with the aim to evidence both probably buried structures related to the known crypt and other features such as tombs. The GPR investigations allow us to locate many features under the floor of the church. Some of them are unknown and could belong to the previous building of the Romanesque period. Furthermore, most of the identified structures are related to tombs and underground rooms (ossuaries). Under the crypt floor, six tombs of the 19th and 20th centuries and other ancient structures were documented.

Multi-proxy analysis of relative sea-level and paleoshoreline changes during the last 2300 years in the Campi Flegrei caldera, Southern Italy

This study aims to present new additional data regarding the relative sea-level (RSL) changes and the vertical ground movements (VGM) occurred in Campi Flegrei caldera since the Early Roman period (3rd century BC), commenting also on the accompanying changes of the coastal landscape and its implications in terms of human adaptation.The study area is located along the western sector of the Campi Flegrei caldera, one of the active volcanic systems of the Mediterranean region that started its activity more than 60 ka BP. Despite the human occupation of Campi Flegrei started not later than the Early Bronze Age (about 3.5 ka BP) and the earliest coastal settlements date back to the first Greek colonization of Southern Italy (ca. 800 BC), nowadays, the numerous coastal archaeological sites that are scattered in the studied area belong to the Roman period. The geoarchaeological interpretation of these remains allows detecting and dating of ancient positions of relative sea levels (RSLs), reconstructing of past coastal conformations, and measuring ancient VGM.The coastal sector between the modern Baia and Miseno was surveyed with a transdisciplinary and multi-proxy approach by means of direct and indirect methods, including, among others, paleo-environmental and archaeo-stratigraphic well logs analysis, geo-acoustic maps interpretation, and measurements of archaeological indicators of ancient sea levels.By comparing our measurement of RSL with the eustatic models of Peltier (2004) and Lambeck et al. (2011), the VGMs history of the coastal sector in the last 2300 years was reconstructed. Even if several volcano-tectonic oscillations were recorded, the obtained multi-proxy indications allow reconstructing two different behaviours in terms of vertical displacements: an overall subsiding trend affecting the area between the Early Roman period and the Middle Age, and a prevailing uplift after that period. The main coastal changes that occurred in the same period can be summarized in a coastal retreat ranging between 40 and 300 m, mainly due to the submersion of the pre-existing coastal area and leading to the submersion of villas, thermae, and other structures built on it. However, based on our measurements, the time span covered by the high-resolution data obtained from the three fish tanks here studied (60 BC – 12 AD) appears to be a period of volcano-tectonic stability, without significant VGMs.

MEDITERRANEAN AND NORTH PONTIC GREEK IMPORTS IN THE NOMADIC BURIALS OF THE LOWER VOLGA REGION AND FOOTHILLS OF SOUTH URALS OF THE 4th — FIRST THIRD OF THE 3rd CENTURY BC

In the Archaic period, Mediterranean and Greek North Pontic imports, rather well represented in Early Scythian burials on the Lower Don, are practically unknown in the burials of the nomads in the Lower Volga and South Urals regions.
 The analysis of archaeological sources shows that in the second half of the 4th century BC imported beads and pendants made of glass, frit and amber reach the nomads of the Lower Volga and South Urals, and a little later, at the turn of the 4th and in the first third of the 3rd century BC — in addition, Greek pottery and possibly vessels made of precious metals, alabaster and onyx. Olbian bronze «borystheni» of the late 4th—3rd centuries BC also were found into the Lower Volga region.
 If for the 5th and most part of the 4th century BC. imports that entered the South Urals were mainly represented by products of the Achaemenid circle, then after the fall of the Achaemenid state and the resulting geopolitical changes in the Lower Volga region and the South Urals imports began to be distributed from (via) the North Pontic region. It is worth noting that in the burials on the Manych river and in the Lower Volga region, finds of transport amphorae were combined with similar black-glazed echinus bowls, and the find of another such bowl in the South Urals suggests that they enjoyed particular popularity among the nomads, even if they did not penetrate Sarmatia within the same batch.
 The above discussed observations rather convincingly support the hypothesis put forward by D. B. Shelov and I. B. Brashinskii. There are grounds reason to suggest that beads and pendants, as well as amphoras, black-glazed pottery and coins could have reached the nomads of the Lower Volga and South Urals precisely via the Elizavetovskoe settlement at the mouth of the Don: probably, beads and pendants — even through the Scythian settlement, on which various industrial complexes and shops existed, allegedly destroyed in the 340s BC, whereas amphoras, black-glazed pottery and coins — already through the so-called Bosporan colony, founded on the site of a settlement in the last quarter of the 4th century BC, which existed until the mid-70s of the 3rd century BC.

Italic Bronze Statuette of the 5th — 3rd Centuries BC from the Late Sarmatian Burial in the Lower Don Area (on the Statuettes in the Burials of Eurasian Nomads of the First Centuries AD)

The article is devoted to the attribution of a bronze statuette of a naked man with a rounded object in a raised right hand, found in the Late Sarmatian female burial of Valovyy-I burial-ground, dating not earlier than the second half of the 2nd century AD, in the vicinity of ancient Tanais in the Lower Don region. This is the only reliable case I know of a find of a bronze figurine in the burials of the early nomads of Eurasia, in which imported anthropomorphic figurines are extremely rare. The analysis of the statuette has shown that, contrary to the opinion of the publishers, it has nothing to do with the items of bronze plastic of the Greek Hellenistic or Roman imperial circle. In the absence of exact analogies, the greatest closeness to it is found by Italic figurines of the 5th — 3rd centuries BC. How the figurine in question could found its way into the Late Sarmatian burial on the Lower Don — a question that is not easy to give a definite answer. We can only point out that among the various bronze and silver statuettes found in the sanctuary on the Gurzuf Pass in the mountainous Crimea, one is attributed by us as Italic and dates from the Hellenistic period. The handicraft repair of the figure from the Valovyy-I burial-ground, which is not characteristic for the Greco-Roman metalwork, gives reason to believe that it could exist in a nomadic milieu for a long time. An attempt is made to interpret the fact of a find not just imported, but very ancient at the time of burial (at least 500 years), object in a nomadic burial, to explain this phenomenon and to determine the function of the statuette by the nomads.

ТЕРАКОТОВІ БЮСТИ БОГИНІ З КОРИМБАМИ З ОЛЬВІЇ ПОНТІЙСЬКОЇ ЕЛЛІНІСТИЧНОГО ЧАСУ

Four terracotta busts of a woman with unique attributes were unearthed in Olbia during excavations of 1936 and 1959. The attributes include a cone-shaped bowl on the head, corymbs in the hair, a taenia on the forehead and floral décor. For a long time, scholars considered the woman a personification of goddess Demeter. At the beginning of the 21st century, the Danish scholar Pia Guldager Bilde was the first to change this attribution to Ariadne, Dionysus’ wife, based on five small fragments of similar busts found during N. O. Leipunskaia’s excavations in the sector of the «Lower town: North» (NGS) in Olbia. Following other scholars, she also identified them as thymiateria – utensils for incense burning in bowls. Despite the absence of other characteristic elements and traces of soot, they were named “Ariadne thymiateria”. Later, T. M. Shevchenko published seven more fragments of similar busts, which in her recent publications were identified as thymiateria depicting one of the participants of the Dionysiac thyasos: a nymph, Ariadne, Semela and others, or even young Dionysus himself. Such contradictory interpretations of the above terracottas led to their comprehensive analysis. The first of two planned articles on this topic develops a typology of this group of terracotta busts, which distinguishes between three iconographic types. The first and the third type include one item each. The second iconographic type is the most numerous and has two variants. Variant A comprises eleven items from Olbia excavations from different years, including four fully restored terracotta busts with the abovementioned iconographic attributes. The hypothetical subvariant Aa is the head of a similar bust from the excavations of Scythian Neapolis. Variant B comprises one fragment from Chersonesos Taurica. We have reasons to believe that terracottas of all three iconographic types were created in the 3rd century BC. This assumption is supported by the chronology of closed contexts, in which around half of them were discovered, including terracotta busts that are generally dated back to the 3rd century BC. Most likely, these busts were last used for rituals in family sanctuaries in the middle of the 2nd century BC. We assume that the shape of the bowl on the head of terracotta woman busts was made by Olbian artists under the influence of local ceramic thymiateria in the form of a cone-shaped tall-stem bowl from the 3rd century BC. Taking into account the absence of any traces of soot in the bowls on the busts and their practical use of thymiateria, we believe that these original terracotta items were used for votive purposes. The pouring of essential oil into the coarse, widely open bowl is questionable considering the very high price of the aromas, discovery locations in blocks where artisans and middle-income merchants were living, the terracotta texture, and lack of proper coating and lids with holes. The shape and the size of the bowl, a white engobe on its inner sides, and the floral décor on the woman’s head let us assume that it could be used for putting inside small fruit or seeds. According to this use, these busts were used as votives, pseudo-thymiateria or a kind of aroma bowls for dry flowers or fragrant plants.

From Iology to Toxicology: A new specialization in Ancient Alexandrian School.

Alexandria was both an important city and a place of inspiration in the history of medicine since the 3rd century BC until 7th century AD. Its fertile intellectual and scientific environment gave rise to a radical and new thinking and understanding of the disease process. King Ptolemy I (323-285 BC) established the Museion and the Great Library of Alexandria fabled in Antiquity for its treasures of wisdom. This complex interaction between Greeks and Egyptians before and under the Ptolemies gave scientists an opportunity to live and work under royal patronage with excellent repercussions. Scholars were attracted to take part in scientific research, especially in medicine and mathematics, developing different known areas and programs. Furthermore scholars in Alexandria also brought back new ideas and activities each with specialized knowledge of the subjects. As the medical science of ancient Greece plunged into political decadence and setbacks - scientific work was renewed in this city with the arriving of the greatest minds of the day. The 'Faculty' of Medicine in Alexandria seems to be an integral part of the Mouseion. In the 3rd century BC, the Ptolemaic capital caught the different trends and became the seat of divergent and independent schools. The debt of the Alexandrian physicians to the native Egyptian doctors, highly specialized, was very considerable. Coan school in this time had general professionals who recommended therapeutic and nutricional strategies and diets while Alexandria science provided academic specialization. On the other hand the court physicians, involved in high politics, could be medical specialists meanwhile the teachers of advanced medicine were sometimes left undisturbed in the pursuit of their research. Being able to commit poisoning crimes with drugs by political interests, they were scared of them. Animal and plants toxins became an accepted and divulged study, very fashionable, and Alexandrian school developed scientific research in iology, name given later to this science. Greek sources on toxicology became a special and developed branch in medical literature and from Apollodorus of Tarentum onwards, the father of iology and his book Peri thêriōn, the interest in Greek treatises spread.

Novajidrány–Sárvár-Erdészház : A Celtic Cemetery at the Foothills of Cserehát, Hungary

At the end of the 4th century BC, and the beginning of the 3rd century BC a Celtic population wave reached the eastern parts of the Carpathian Basin, including Northeastern Hungary. The elements of the funerary rite and the archaeological finds attest to the presence of the newly arrived communities in the cemeteries of the region. The present study serves as a preliminary report on the research results of a Celtic cemetery in the Hernád valley excavated in 2019. The site of Novajidrány–Sárvár-erdészház was in use between the late 4th century BC the earliest and the 3rd century BC and it fits well into the row of Late Iron Age cemeteries in the region. Both cremated and inhumated burials were documented with richly accompanied metal and pottery grave goods. Appearing next to the typically La Tène-styled finds, the graves also contained – mainly in the ceramic assemblages – Scythian-influenced forms which can be explained by the Celtic and Scythian cohabitation in the region during the Late Iron Age.

La técnica Yin: Teoría y práctica del discurso persuasivo en China durante los Reinos Combatientes (SS. V-III A.C.)

The authors of this paper translate from Classical Chinese and comment on various texts that are intended to illustrate the relationship between the theory and practice of persuasive discourse during the Warring States period (5th to 3rd centuries BC). The texts come from two different works: Zhanguoce, a compilation of pre-Qin documents made by Liu Xiang in the Han period (late 1st century BC), and Lüshi Chunqiu, an encyclopedic collection undertaken under the instructions of Lü Buwei, Qin State Minister, in the 3rd century BC. The political suasoria (shuì) has the counselor and the king as protagonists par excellence. In the anecdotes that provide concrete examples of the rhetorical exercitatio, an approach decidedly marked by the unequal power relations between both of them is observed, where dialogue dominates on monologue. Under such conditions, the persuader develops an indirect strategy that, disdaining any virtuosity of elocution, tries first and foremost not to challenge the expectations of his one-person audience.

Black-Gloss Pottery Found in a Residential Building in Nikonion. Research Seasons 2008-2011

The paper concerns the discoveries of tableware made in the black-gloss technique, which were found in a living house uncovered in Nikonion during the excavations in 2008-2011. However, the following paper constitutes a detailed analysis of the discoveries directly related to the usability of the uncovered house. Among the discoveries of black-gloss pottery related to the house’s floor levels the oldest can be dated to the end of the 4th century B.C., most of the discoveries are dated as far as the 3rd century BC. Most of the finds present the products of Attic workshops, but there are three examples of vessels that come from other production centres

Tropajony na rzymskich monetach w okresie republiki i wczesnego cesarstwa. Kontekst historyczno-typologiczny

This article focuses on representations of trophies on the Roman coins during the Republic and Empire. First of all, analyzed the oldest emissions from the 3rd century BC with the presentation of Victoria crowning the trophy, which was a responded to the propaganda of many cities from southern Italy that supported Hannibal during the Second Punic War. Then, the trophies theme used by Roman moneyers to the memorialized the military campaigns of their ancestors were analyzed. Finally, imperial emissions, which presented trophies integrated into a wider architectural context, including as an element of commemorative archs